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Folsom tradition

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Folsom
Map showing the extent of the Folsom tradition
Map of Folsom tradition (modern shoreline shown)
Geographical rangeGreat Plains
PeriodLithic or Paleo-Indian stage
Datesc. 10800 – 10200 BCE[1]
Type siteFolsom site
Preceded byClovis culture
A Folsom spearpoint approximately life size.

The Folsom tradition is a Paleo-Indian archaeological culture that occupied much of central North America from c. 10800 BCE to c. 10200 BCE. The term was first used in 1927 by Jesse Dade Figgins, director of the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.[2] The discovery by archaeologists of projectile points in association with the bones of extinct Bison antiquus, especially at the Folsom site near Folsom, New Mexico, established much greater antiquity for human residence in the Americas than the previous scholarly opinion that humans in the Americas dated back only 3,000 years. The findings at the Folsom site have been called the "discovery that changed American archaeology."[3]

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  • Connect 104 | The Mysterious Folsom People
  • Oldest excavated bone needle in lower North America #clovis #folsom #anthropology #archaeology 
  • The Clovis Culture
  • Folsom Point look see #1
  • Folsom Points for Fluting Junkies

Transcription

>> WE'RE HERE WITH DR. BRUCE HUCKELL, PROFESSOR IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO. DR. HUCKELL BRINGS US A DETECTIVE STORY, OR A HUNTER-GATHERER PALEOECOLOGY FROM THE NORTH AMERICAN PALEO-INDIAN PERIOD. PAINT ME A PICTURE 11000 YEARS AGO OF THE GIGANTIC NORTH AMERICAN ICE SHEETS MELTING. >> IT'S A TIME OF GREAT CHANGE. THE CLIMATE HAS BEEN WARMING AND THE GLACIERS RETREATING SINCE ABOUT 18000 YEARS AGO. AND AROUND ABOUT 11000 YEARS AGO, THERE IS A REALLY RAPID SHIFT BACK INTO VERY COLD TEMPERATURES, SO THIS WARMING IS HALTED FOR A PERIOD OF ABOUT A THOUSAND YEARS. THE EFFECTS THAT WE WOULD SEE DOWN HERE IN NEW MEXICO MIGHT NOT HAVE BEEN HORRIBLY DRAMATIC, BUT MOST LIKELY WE WOULD HAVE SEEN A MORE GRASS RICH ENVIRONMENT. >> MORE WATER, FOR SURE. >> MORE WATER, FOR SURE, AND A LOT OF THESE LITTLE THINGS THAT WE CALL PLAYAS, OR DRY LAKES, THAT ARE JUST OUT ON THE WEST MESA WOULD HAVE HELD WATER. SO IT WAS A TIME WHEN THERE WERE A LOT OF BISON ON THE LANDSCAPE AND OTHER TYPICAL PLAINS ANIMALS, PROBABLY PRONGHORN, AND PEOPLE. >> SO, WHO WERE THESE PEOPLE THAT WERE MOVING INTO THE CONTINENT IN THIS AREA AS IT WAS STILL CHANGING? >> THE FOLKS THAT WERE HERE BETWEEN AROUND ABOUT 10900 AND 10200 YEARS AGO ARE A GROUP WE CALL THE FOLSOM. WE DON'T KNOW WHAT THEY CALLED THEMSELVES, OF COURSE. THEY LEFT NO WRITTEN RECORD. BUT WE CALL THEM FOLSOM BECAUSE THEIR DISTINCTIVE SPEAR POINTS WERE FIRST RECOVERED FROM A SITE WHERE THEY HAD KILLED A NUMBER OF BISON UP BY THE LITTLE TINY TOWN OF FOLSOM, EAST OF RATON. SO THESE FOLKS WERE HIGHLY NOMADIC HUNTER-GATHERERS WHO RANGED OVER MUCH OF WHAT IS TODAY NEW MEXICO, AND PROBABLY SOUTHERN COLORADO, PERHAPS ALL THE WAY DOWN SOUTH TOWARDS CHIHUAHUA. >> WHAT DO YOU THINK IS IMPORTANT FOR US TO KNOW TODAY ABOUT THE FOLSOM PEOPLE? >> THEY WERE AROUND FOR PROBABLY UPWARDS OF 700 YEARS. SO THEIR LIFESTYLE, THEIR ADAPTATION, IF YOU WILL, TO THIS SET OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS WAS ONE THAT WAS VERY SUCCESSFUL. YOU KNOW, TODAY WE TALK ABOUT SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES, AND THIS WAS PROBABLY A GOOD EXAMPLE OF A LIFESTYLE THAT WAS QUITE SUSTAINABLE, PROVIDED THAT YOU WERE WILLING TO MOVE FREQUENTLY, COVER A LOT OF GROUND. YOU'RE PROBABLY NOT EVER OCCUPYING WHAT WE WOULD CONSIDER TO BE A PERMANENT VILLAGE, BUT JUST CAMP AFTER CAMP AFTER CAMP. THE OTHER THING THAT'S INTERESTING ABOUT THEM IS THAT THEY MADE SOME OF THE MOST STUNNING SPEAR POINTS THAT WE SEE IN ALL OF NORTH AMERICAN PREHISTORY. THEY'RE OFTEN OUT OF VERY BEAUTIFUL STONE. THEY'RE MOST OF THE TIME VERY BEAUTIFULLY WORKED, WHAT WE WOULD PERHAPS INTERPRET AS ESTHETICS, WHERE THEY ARE GOING AFTER RAW MATERIALS THAT ARE AMONG THE MOST COLORFUL, THE ONES THAT ARE PERHAPS MOST STRIKING. AND IT MAY BE JUST AN EXPRESSION OF WHAT THEY SAW AS BEAUTY, IT MAY BE AN EXPRESSION OF RESPECT FOR THE ANIMAL THAT THEY'RE HUNTING. AS A MEMBER OF A SMALL HIGHLY NOMADIC GROUP, YOU HAVE TO DEPEND A LOT ON YOUR RELATIONS. SO WHEN TIMES GET TOUGH, OR MAYBE JUST WHEN -- YOU KNOW, THE ONCE OR TWICE A YEAR WHEN ALL OF THE SMALL GROUPS THAT HAVE BEEN OPERATING INDEPENDENTLY FOR MOST OF THE YEAR COME TOGETHER, THAT WOULD BE A TIME WHEN YOU COULD BUILD AND CEMENT RELATIONS WITH OTHER SMALL GROUPS, AND THAT MIGHT INCLUDE THE TRADING OF RAW MATERIAL, EXCHANGE OF MATES, BUILDING THOSE KINDS OF SOCIAL AND, TO A DEGREE, ECONOMIC TIES THAT WOULD HELP YOU BE A SUCCESSFUL HUNTER-GATHERER. >> YOU'RE PROBABLY BETTER TO HAVE A MORE ARTISTIC BEAUTIFUL ARROWHEAD TO TRADE WITH, IF THAT WAS AMONG THE THINGS YOU TRADED. >> EXACTLY. I THINK IT WOULD PROBABLY BE A LITTLE MORE DESIRABLE TO HAVE YOU AS A TRADING PARTNER IF YOU HAVE SOMETHING THAT HAS THAT KIND OF IMPACT. >> TELL ME A LITTLE BIT ABOUT THE FIRST FOLSOM DISCOVERY. YOU SAID THAT WAS ACTUALLY NORTHEAST? >> YES. IT'S FAR NORTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO, THE LITTLE TOWN OF FOLSOM. IN 1908, THERE WAS A CATASTROPHIC FLOOD THAT CREATED A HUGE RUNOFF EVENT, AND AN AFRICAN-AMERICAN COWBOY BY THE NAME OF GEORGE McJUNKIT WAS OUT RIDING HIS HORSE, AND McJUNKIT HAD GROWN UP IN TEXAS, AND HE KNEW WHAT BISON AND BISON BONES LOOKED LIKE. AND STICKING OUT OF ONE OF THESE ARROYOS, OFF JUST A LITTLE BIT TO THE WEST OF FOLSOM, WAS THIS WHOLE ARRAY OF BONES. AND HE PULLED SOME OF THEM OUT, SHOWED THEM AROUND, AND IN HIS ESTIMATION THEY WERE BISON BONES. AND IN ADDITION TO FINDING THESE BONES, THEY ALSO GOT SOME SKULLS. THE SKULLS WERE THOSE OF WHAT WAS AGREED TO BE AN EXTINCT SPECIES OF BISON, CALLED BISON ANTIQUUS. AND AT THAT POINT IN TIME, WELL BEFORE ANY CARBON-DATING, IT WAS GENERALLY AGREED THAT THAT WAS THE SAME SPECIES, AND IT WAS PROBABLY EXTINCT BY AROUND 10000 YEARS AGO. IN EXCAVATING THIS, THEY STARTED FINDING THESE BEAUTIFUL LITTLE SPEAR POINTS, WHICH BECAME KNOWN AS FOLSOM POINTS. THE SITE, ITSELF, IS OF CRITICAL IMPORTANCE ACROSS ALL OF NORTH AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY BECAUSE PRIOR TO THAT TIME, THERE WAS A HUGE DEBATE ABOUT HOW LONG PEOPLE HAD BEEN HERE, AND A LOT OF THE PREVAILING OPINION WAS THAT PEOPLE HAD NOT GOTTEN INTO THE NEW WORLD MUCH BEFORE MAYBE 6000 YEARS AGO. AND YET, HERE AT FOLSOM YOU HAVE THESE SPEAR POINTS IN ASSOCIATION WITH AN EXTINCT SPECIES OF BISON. SO ALL OF A SUDDEN, YOU KNOW, YOUR WORLD GETS KIND OF TURNED UPSIDE-DOWN AND YOU HAVE TO ACCEPT THE FACT THAT YOU HAVE PEOPLE IN HERE AT THE END OF LAST ICE AGE. >> SO YOU FIND AN ARTIFACT. HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY IT AS BEING OF THE FOLSOM PERIOD? >> THE MOST DISTINCTIVE THING ARE THE SPEAR POINTS. THEY'RE CALLED FLUTED POINTS IN THE SENSE THAT ON BOTH SIDES, THEY HAVE ONE LARGE FLAKE THAT IS STRUCK AT THE BASE AND DRIVEN UP TOWARDS THE TIP, AND IT CREATES THIS GROOVE. >> WOW. >> FLUTING SHOWS UP NOWHERE ELSE IN THE WORLD, BUT IN NORTH AMERICA. >> OH, INTERESTING. >> AND IT HAS ITS ORIGINS WITH A GROUP THAT WE CALL CLOVIS, AND THEY ARE PROBABLY THE ANCESTORS OF FOLSOM. FOLSOM FOLKS TAKE AND REFINE THIS FLUTING TECHNIQUE TO THE DEGREE THAT VIRTUALLY THE ENTIRE SURFACE IS A SCAR FROM THAT FLUTE. >> REALLY, IT'S AN ART FORM. >> THEY'RE VERY DISTINCTIVE. THEY'RE VERY DISTINCTIVE AND VERY DEMANDING TO MAKE, AND WE ONLY SEE THOSE POINTS FROM THE SITES OF THE FOLSOM CULTURE, WHICH AS I SAID JUST DATES TO THIS NARROW TIME PERIOD. >> A LITTLE SLICE OF TIME. >> AND AFTER THAT, IT'S GONE. WE DON'T SEE IT AGAIN. >> TALK TO ME A LITTLE BIT ABOUT THE RECENT DISCOVERIES, SOME THINGS THAT ARE DIFFERENT FROM WHAT WE ALREADY KNEW ABOUT THE FOLSOM. >> THAT GUARANTEES THAT FUTURE ARCHAEOLOGISTS WILL HAVE EMPLOYMENT. >> ALWAYS GOOD. >> WE HAVE A LOT OF QUESTIONS ABOUT EXACTLY WHO THESE PEOPLE WERE, HOW THEY WENT ABOUT MAKING A LIVING, AND WHERE THEY WENT, WHERE WITHIN NORTH AMERICA THEY OCCUR. WE FOUND FOLSOM POINTS FROM SOUTHERN CANADA ALL THE WAY DOWN INTO NORTHERN MEXICO, AND FROM ESSENTIALLY THE ROCKIES EASTWARD, AS FAR EAST AS SOUTHWESTERN IOWA. SO THE SITES I'VE BEEN WORKING ON THAT ARE JUST OUT WEST OF ALBUQUERQUE HERE HAVE PROVIDED US WITH SOME NEW INSIGHTS. THESE ARE THE FIRST SITES WITHIN THIS REGION TO BE ABLE TO SAY, OKAY, YES, WE DO HAVE THE REMAINS OF BISON, NOT HORRIBLY WELL PRESERVED, BUT IN ASSOCIATION WITH THESE FOLSOM ARTIFACTS. THE SITES OUT HERE ARE SITTING AROUND THE VERY SMALL DRY LAKES, PLAYAS, BUT THEY'RE IN SAND DEPOSITS. AND SO WE'RE NEVER HAVING TO EXCAVATE MUCH DEEPER THAN ABOUT LIKE THIS. >> OH, WOW. >> BUT THE NEGATIVE SIDE OF IT IS THAT BECAUSE, YOU KNOW, SEDIMENT IS ACCUMULATING SO VERY SLOWLY, YOU DON'T GET THE GOOD PRESERVATION. SO ALL WE HAVE LEFT OF THE BISON ARE PRIMARILY PIECES OF THE TOOTH ENAMEL AND LITTLE BITS AND SPLINTERS OF BONES THAT WE CAN SAY ARE LARGE MAMMALS. SO THE SITES THAT WE'VE BEEN INVESTIGATING OUT WEST OF HERE ARE DOMINATED BY RAW MATERIALS THAT COME FROM DISTANCES OF ANYWHERE FROM ABOUT 75 TO 200-KILOMETERS AWAY. SO WE SEE OBSIDIAN FROM UP IN THE VALLE GRANDE, WE SEE WHAT IS CALLED PEDERNAL CHERT FROM UP IN THE NORTHERN END OF THE JEMEZ, WE SEE WHAT'S CALLED CHUSKA CHERT, AND THAT COMES FROM THE CHUSKA MOUNTAINS THAT ARE OUT ON THE ARIZONA/NEW MEXICO BORDER, AND WE SEE A MATERIAL CALLED CHINA CHERT. ALL OF THESE RAW MATERIAL SOURCES ARE TO THE WEST AND THE NORTH. IT'S PRETTY CLEAR THAT THEY'RE MOVING SOUTH. BUT WHERE DO THEY GO FROM HERE? WE'RE STILL DEBATING HOW PEOPLE GET INTO NORTH AMERICA. THE TRADITIONAL MODEL HAS CLOVIS, OR THE ANCESTORS OF CLOVIS, COMING DOWN BETWEEN THE LAURENTIDE AND THE CORDILLERAN ICE SHEETS. IN OTHER WORDS, UP IN NORTHERN CANADA. AS THE MELTING BEGINS AT 18000 YEARS AGO, THE CORDILLERAN RETREATS WESTWARD, THE LAURENTIDE ICE SHEET RETREATS EASTWARD, AND THEY OPEN A CORRIDOR BETWEEN THEM. SO THE TRADITIONAL MODEL HAS PEOPLE COMING ACROSS BERINGIA AND THEN DOWN THIS SO-CALLED ICE-FREE CORRIDOR. ONCE THEY GET SOUTH OF THE ICE SHEETS, THEY APPEAR TO SPREAD. >> HOW DOES FOLSOM CULTURE RELATE TO SOME OF THE SOUTHWEST, THE NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURES, THE RECENT ONES OF THE SOUTHWEST? >> WHEN YOU'RE TALKING ABOUT SOMETHING THAT'S 10000 PLUS YEARS OLDER THAN CONTEMPORARY SOUTHWESTERN GROUPS, IT'S REALLY HARD TO ESTABLISH LINKS. FOR AN ARCHAEOLOGIST, WE TEND TO RELY ON THINGS LIKE SIMILARITIES IN POTTERY, OR IN ARCHITECTURE, OR IN SOME TOOLS. WITH FOLSOM, YOU HAVE NO POTTERY, YOU HAVE NO ARCHITECTURE. YOU HAVE STONE TOOLS, BUT THEY'RE STONE TOOLS THAT ARE DESIGNED FOR AN ENTIRELY DIFFERENT LIFESTYLE AND SET OF WEAPONS. SO IT'S REALLY HARD TO SAY, YOU KNOW, THERE'S THIS CLEAR LINE. >> RIGHT. >> HAVING SAID THAT, WE SUSPECT THAT THERE IS AT LEAST EVERY GOOD CHANCE THAT FOLSOM FOLKS HAVE DESCENDANTS IN OUR CONTEMPORARY CULTURES IN THE SOUTHWEST. IT MAY BE JUST A VERY, VERY SMALL SORT OF INPUT, BUT IF YOU LOOK AT IT FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF NATIVE AMERICANS, A LOT OF THEIR TRADITIONAL STORIES TALK ABOUT HOW THINGS WERE IN TIMES PAST BEFORE THEY REACHED THE AREAS WHERE THEY LIVE TODAY, AND SOME OF THESE GROUPS TALK ABOUT A LIFESTYLE WHERE THEY'RE SUBSISTING ON WILD GAME, WILD PLANTS, AND ALWAYS MOVING. >> WHAT DO YOU THINK WE WOULD HAVE TO DISCOVER TO REALLY, REALLY KNOW WHO THE FOLSOM PEOPLE WERE? >> ONE OF THE THINGS THAT WOULD BE GREAT WOULD BE TO BE ABLE TO FIND SITES THAT HAVE JUST SUPERB PRESERVATION. A FOLSOM OCCUPATION IN A DRY CAVE. THESE PEOPLE COULD HAVE BEEN SUPERB HIDE WORKERS, HIDE PAINTERS. SO WE REALLY DON'T KNOW WHAT THESE PEOPLE LOOK LIKE >> SO DNA EVIDENCE THAT YOU HAVE ANYWHERE? >> NO DNA EVIDENCE THAT WE CAN BRING TO BEAR FROM FOLSOM. I REALLY WOULD LIKE TO SEE WHAT THE PEOPLE LOOKED LIKE, BECAUSE ULTIMATELY IT'S PEOPLE AND THEIR BEHAVIOR THAT WE'RE INTERESTED IN AS ANTHROPOLOGISTS. >> WELL, MAYBE THERE'S ANOTHER MR. McJUNKIT OUT THERE READY TO MAKE A FIND WHEN HE'S RIDING ON HORSEBACK, OR DOING SOME DIGGING, AND MAYBE WE'LL FIND THAT REALLY PRESERVED SITE THAT WILL OFFER SOME MORE CLUES. BUT IN THE MEANTIME, IT IS A GREAT MYSTERY, AND I THANK YOU FOR SHARING IT TODAY. >> MY PLEASURE, AUGUSTA. THANKS FOR HAVING ME. >> YOU BET.

Controversy

The antiquity of humans in the New World was a controversial topic in the late 19th and early 20th century. Beginning in 1859, discoveries of human bones in Europe in association with extinct Pleistocene mammals proved to scientists that human beings had existed further into the past than the Biblical tradition of a world created 6,000 years ago. Pioneering American archaeologists soon found evidence of early humans living in the Americas. In 1872, Charles Conrad Abbott announced the discovery of traces of human presence in the Delaware River Valley dating from the ice ages, Although many of his findings were later disproven, Abbott inspired a hunt for the remains of ancient man in the Americas.[4][5]

However, claims that humans may have inhabited the Americas thousands or tens of thousands of years ago were controversial. In the "Great Paleolithic War" proponents of recent and ancient peopling faced off in opposition to each other. In the early 1900s, Ales Hrdlicka and William Henry Holmes of the Smithsonian Institution became the chief advocates of the view that man had not lived in the Americas for longer than 3,000 years.[6][7] Hrdlicka and others made it "virtually taboo" for any archaeologist "desirous of a successful career" to advocate a deep antiquity for inhabitants of the Americas. The findings at the Folsom site eventually overturned that conventional wisdom.[8]

Discovery of Folsom

On August 27, 1908, 15 in (380 mm) of rain fell on Johnson Mesa in New Mexico causing downstream floods along the Dry Cimarron River. A local African-American cowboy, George McJunkin, surveyed the damage in Wild Horse Arroyo and found bones uncovered by the flood. He recognized the bones as similar to but larger than bison bones and among the bones he found projectile points. McJunkin tried to interest amateur palentologists from Raton, New Mexico, to visit the isolated site but he died in 1922 with the Folsom site still unvisited by scientists.[9][10]

Archaeologists had made earlier and similar discoveries. In 1895, at the 12 Mile Creek site in western Kansas, an archaeologist found a projectile point in conjunction with the bones of extinct bison.[11] At Vero Beach, Florida in 1916, an archaeologist found human bones and the bones of extinct mammals mixed together. Additional findings of human bones mixed with those of extinct mammals were found in Nebraska and Kansas. Hrdlicka discounted all of the findings based on his belief that the human remnants were too modern in appearance to belong to older human beings. In 1922, shortly after McJunkin's death, a Raton blacksmith, Carl Schwachheim, and a banker, Fred Howarth, both amateur naturalists visited the Folsom site. They collected bones and took them to Jesse Figgins, director of the Denver Museum of Nature and Science and palaentologist Harold Cook. Figgins and Cook identified the bones as belonging to an extinct species of bison, Bison antiquus. In 1926, all four men visited the Folsom site and began excavations.[12]

By the time they excavated Folsom, Figgins and Cook were already persuaded of the antiquity of humans in the New World. In 1922, Cook had found a human tooth among the bones of extinct mammals at Snake Creek in Nebraska. In 1924, at Lone Wolf Creek in Texas, excavators reported to Figgins that they found three projectile points associated with a bison skeleton. The excavators at Folsom found several projectile points at the site and on August 29, 1927, Schwachheim found the proof they had been seeking: a spear point clearly associated with the bones of the extinct Bison antiquus (10 to 25 percent larger than now-existent Bison bison). Other archaeologists were invited to see the findings in situ and they agreed that the bison bones and the spear point were contemporaneous. As the date of the extinction of the ancient bison had not yet been determined, archaeologists at a meeting of the American Anthropological Association in December 1927 speculated that man had arrived in the New World 15 to 20 thousand years ago. Hrdlička, however, was not persuaded and along with a few others ignored the Folsom evidence,[13] but after the Folsom discovery archaeologists mostly believed that humans resided in the Americas long before Hrdliča's 3,000 year claim. Speculation about the exact antiquity of Folsom continued until radiocarbon dating came into use in the 1950s and the bison bones at the site could be dated more precisely.[14]

Figgins and Cook paid a price for their challenge to the scientific establishment. Neither of them were invited to any of the seven academic symposia devoted to American antiquity which took place from 1927 to 1937.[15]

Folsom culture

The Lindenmeier site, near Fort Collins, Colorado was a large Folsom settlement. Bison were driven into the arroyo and killed there.

The Folsom Complex dates to a few hundred years between 11,000 BCE and 10,000 BCE and archaeologists believe it evolved from the earlier Clovis culture.[16] (Older uncalibrated radiocarbon dating had estimated the age of Folsom between 9,000 and 8,000 BCE.[17]) There is a possible correlation, but not necessarily a causation, between the end of Clovis and the onset of Folsom with the extinction of most species of megafauna.[18] Artifacts from the Clovis culture are associated with the bones of mammoths; archaeologists have not found evidence of mammoths being a prey of Folsom hunters. In addition, the Bison antiquus, the most important prey animal of the Folsom hunters, became extinct about the same time that Folsom evolved into cultures relying on greater dependence on smaller animals and plant foods.[19] Authorities differ as to whether the extinctions of megafauna were caused by climate change (the Younger Dryas) or over-hunting by Paleo Indians or both.[20]

The Folsom culture flourished over a large area on the Great Plains of the United States and Canada, eastward as far as Illinois and westward into the Rocky Mountains. One Folsom site is in Mexico across the Rio Grande River from El Paso, Texas. The distinguishing feature of Folsom culture was its projectile points for spears. The bow and arrow was not yet in use. Folsom points were smaller and more delicate than the projectile points made by the preceding Clovis culture. The points were painstakingly crafted of flint. Folsom projectile points were often made from sources of flint hundreds of miles distant from where they have been found. Folsom flint knappers used the highest quality of flint. Folsom points are distinguished by "fluting" which is flaking away a groove running down the center of the projectile point from one end to the other. Fluting a point was difficult for the craftsman and the attempt often resulted in failure as demonstrated by findings of many ruined projectile points. Folsom people also produced large quantities of flint knives, scrapers, and other stone and bone tools.[21]

The quality of stone used, the non-utility of fluting except for its aesthetic appeal, and the emphasis on color in selecting flint for making points may indicate a ritual or religious aspect in the production and use of Folsom points, possibly to ensure success in the hunt.[22][23]

In addition to individual kills, a practice of Folsom hunters was to ambush groups of bison by driving them into narrow ravines and gullies where they could be slaughtered. Kill sites have been found with the bones of five to 55 bison. Archaeologists have also found bones of animals other than bison in association with the Folsom remains. The sparse remains of Folsom settlements are usually found near kill sites and steams or springs where bison and other animals congregated. Folsom settlements were small, comprising perhaps on average five families numbering 25 or more people. Several groups may have joined together for communal bison hunts.[22]

Additional Folsom sites

References

  1. ^ Surovell, Todd; Hodgins, Gregory; Boyd, Joshua; Haynes, C. Vance Jr. (April 2016). "On the Dating of the Folsom Complex and its Correlation with the Younger Dryas, the End of Clovis, and Megafaunal Extinction". PaleoAmerica. 2 (2): 7. doi:10.1080/20555563.2016.1174559. S2CID 45884830. Retrieved 6 April 2023.
  2. ^ Hillerman, Anthony G. (1973). "The Hunt for the Lost American". The Great Taos Bank Robbery and Other Indian Country Affairs. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-0306-4. republished in The Great Taos Bank Robbery and Other Indian Country Affairs. New York: Harper Paperbacks. May 1997. ISBN 0-06-101173-8.
  3. ^ Peeples, Matt. "George McJunkin and the Discovery that Changed American Archaeology". Archaeology Southwest. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
  4. ^ Charles C. Mann. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf (2005) ISBN 1-4000-3205-9. pages 160–163.
  5. ^ Herman, G. C. "Abbott Farm Hunter Research, Chapter 5: Archaeological History" (PDF). Impact Tectonics. pp. 5-1 to 5-10. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
  6. ^ Fagan, Brian M. (1996). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–38. ISBN 0-19-507618-4.
  7. ^ Hillerman, Tony (Winter 1971). "The Czech that Bounced" (PDF). New Mexico. 50 (1, 2): 26–27.
  8. ^ Meltzer, David J. (Winter 2005). "The Seventy-Year Itch: Controversies over Human Antiquity and Their Resolution". Journal of Anthropological Research. 61 (4): 435–439. doi:10.3998/jar.0521004.0061.401. JSTOR 3631536. S2CID 162069721.
  9. ^ Meltzer 2005, p. 437.
  10. ^ Ramirez Mather, Jeanne. "George McJunkin" (PDF). Classroom Spice. University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
  11. ^ Hill, Jr., Matthew E. (May 2006). "Before Folsom: The 12 Mile Creek Site and the Debate Over Peopling of the Americas". Plains Anthropologist. 51 (198): 141–143. doi:10.1179/pan.2006.011. JSTOR 25670870. S2CID 218669497. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
  12. ^ Meltzer, David J. (2006). Folsom. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 22–29. ISBN 0-520-24644-6. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
  13. ^ Meltzer 2006, pp. 33–39.
  14. ^ Meltzer, David J.; Todd, Lawrence C.; Holliday, Vance T. (January 2002). "The Folsom (Paleoindian) Type Site: Past Investigations, Current Studies". American Antiquity. 67 (1): 5. doi:10.2307/2694875. JSTOR 2694875. S2CID 164147120.
  15. ^ Meltzer 2005, p. 457.
  16. ^ "Folsom Period". www.umanitoba.ca. Retrieved 2022-03-05.
  17. ^ "Folsom complex | ancient North American culture | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-03-05.
  18. ^ Surovell et al. 2016, pp. 1–7.
  19. ^ Frison, George C. (1998). "Paleoindian large mammal hunters on the plains of North America". PNAS. 95 (24): 14576–14582. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9514576F. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.24.14576. PMC 24415. PMID 9826742.
  20. ^ Barnosky, Anthony D. (1 October 2004). "Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents". Science. 306 (5693): 70–75. Bibcode:2004Sci...306...70B. doi:10.1126/science.1101476. JSTOR 3839254. PMID 15459379. S2CID 36156087.
  21. ^ Pfeiffer, Leslie (October 2004). "The Folsom Culture" (PDF). Central States Archaeological Journal. 51 (4): 173. JSTOR 43142386.
  22. ^ a b Pfeiffer 2004, p. 173.
  23. ^ Butkus, Edmund A. (July 2004). "How Extensive was the Folsom Tradition in North America". Central States Archaeology Journal. 51 (3): 172–173. JSTOR 4314386. Note: JSTOR web address mistaken in April 2023, search author's name and article title for access.
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