IPA Extensions is a block (U+0250–U+02AF) of the Unicode standard that contains full size letters used in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Both modern and historical characters are included, as well as former and proposed IPA signs and non-IPA phonetic letters. Additional characters employed for phonetics, like the palatalization sign, are encoded in the blocks Phonetic Extensions (1D00–1D7F) and Phonetic Extensions Supplement (1D80–1DBF). Diacritics are found in the Spacing Modifier Letters (02B0–02FF) and Combining Diacritical Marks (0300–036F) blocks. Its block name in Unicode 1.0 was Standard Phonetic.[3]
With the ability to use Unicode for the presentation of IPA symbols, ASCII-based systems such as X-SAMPA are being supplanted.[4] Within the Unicode blocks there are also a few former IPA characters no longer in international use by linguists.
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Transcription
Youtube! Edgar here, and welcome to Artifexian. Here you will learn everything you ever wanted to know about worldbuilding...and then some! This is a cross section of the average human food hole. Complete with lips, a tongue and some teeth. A consonant is a speech sound produced when the airflow through the food hole, or vocal tract if you will, is to some degree obstructed. There are three key elements to any consonant: place of articulation, manner of articulation and voicing. In this video, let's look at place of articulation. Place of articulation, or point of articulation, indicates where in the mouth the obstruction is occurring when a consonant is formed. Now, to create an obstruction two bits of your mouth need to be brought together: the articulators. One articulator will move, the active articulator, and one will remain stationary, the passive articulator. Take the “f” sound in fish, for example. Here the lower lip is the active articulator and the upper teeth are the passive articulators. The lower lip moves to the upper teeth, an obstruction is created, air is blown through and boom, you get a [f] sound. There are about 12-ish places in the mouth where the articulators can be brought together to form an obstruction. There are: Bilabial, labiodental, Dental, Alveolar, Post-alveolar, Retroflex, Palatal, Velar, Uvular, Pharyngeal, Epi-glottal and Glottal. Let's break it down. 1. Bilabial. Here the obstruction is created using both the upper and lower lips. In english we have 4-ish Bilabial consonants: [m] as in man, [p] as in pan, [b] as in ban and [w] is in water 2. Ladiodental. Here the lower lip contacts the upper teeth to form sounds like [f] as in fish and [v] as is van. 3. Dental. Here the tip of the tongue touches the upper teeth. We have 2 sounds here in english: [θ] as in thin, [ð] as in this. 4. Alveolar. Here the obstruction occurs at the alveolar ridge – that boney ridge just behind the upper teeth. We have a truck load of sounds here in english, namely: [n], [t], [d], [s], [z], [r] and [l] as in nail, town, dog, sun, zoo, run and laugh. Oh, and also there's also the rolled r. Which I cannot do, Lucky, this guy can... 5. Post, or Palato-alveolar. So, this is almost the same as alveolar except the tongue moves back about a centimeter in the mouth. In english we have two sounds here: [ʃ] as in shine and [ʒ] as in vision. 6. Retroflex. We have no retroflex consonants in english. They are formed by curling the tongue back into the mouth and touching the roof of the mouth in the general post alveolar area. They sound a little like this: [ʈ], [ɖ]. As in the Hindi word for island: “tapu”. And the Swedish word for north: “nord”. Apologies speakers of Hindi and Swedish. I did my best. Moving on... 7. Palatal. Palatal consonants are where the body of the tongue is raised to the hard palate. In english we find only one sound here: [j] as in yes. 8. Velar. Here the obstruction occurs when the back of the tongue touches the soft palate at the back of the mouth. Again, in english we have two sounds here: [k] as in king and [g] as in garden. 9. Uvular. Here the back of the tongue touches the uvula – that dangly bit at the back of you're mouth. English does not have an uvular consonants but they are widespread through african, middle eastern and native american languages, amongst others. Closer to home, french features a uvular trill [R] as in “rendez vous”. 10. Pharyngeal. Here's where things start to get a bit weird. Pharyngeal consonants are articulated with the root of the tongue against the pharynx. Don't ask! Pharyngeals are found primarily in three areas of the world: North Africa and the Middle East, in the Caucasus and in British Colombia. Again I can't produce these sounds but luckily my linguistically-inclined-stick-figure friend is here to help... 11. Epi-glottal. As hard as pharyngeals are to pronounce, epiglottals are much, much worse. Epiglottal consonants are articulated using the aryepiglottic folds against the epiglottis. If that's to much to get your head around, think of a vocal growl type sound a la Louis Armstrong and you're kind of on the right track. Epi-glottals don't feature all that often in human language and they are primarily known from the Semetic languages of the Middle east. Again, I hand you over to stick figure dude... And finally. 12. Glottal. These are articulated using the glottis. Thankfully stickman won't be required here as english has two glottal sounds: [h] as in home and the glottal stop as in the little catch of air in the throat between “uh” and “oh” in “uh-oh”. Now, this is the main consonant chart in the International Phonetic alphabet or IPA for short. For now, all we need to know is that the columns are organized by place of articulation. The active articulator can go on the very top i.e lips, tip, body and back of the tongue, and glottis. And below are the 12-ish places of articulation. Now, its worth noting that this list of 12 places of articulation is far from exhaustive. I'm looking at you lingolabial trill...but that's another story, for another day. Stay tuned... Good morning Interweb. First up, apologies for this video being a week late. To make up for this, hopefully, I'll be releasing a new video within the next couple of days. And if you absolutely cannot wait until then for more Artifexian content, click the yellow box, to the side, to take you to the Artifexian Podcast. There's a new episode out; two hours on nothing but language. Thank you all so much for watching. Edgar out!
Character table
Code | Glyph | HTML | Unicode name | IPA phonetic description / Status | IPA No. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
IPA letters | |||||
U+0250 | ɐ | Latin Small Letter Turned A | Near-open central vowel | 324 | |
U+0251 | ɑ | Latin Small Letter Alpha | Open back unrounded vowel | 305 | |
U+0252 | ɒ | Latin Small Letter Turned Alpha | Open back rounded vowel | 313 | |
U+0253 | ɓ | Latin Small Letter B with Hook | Voiced bilabial implosive | 160 | |
U+0254 | ɔ | Latin Small Letter Open O | Open-mid back rounded vowel | 306 | |
U+0255 | ɕ | Latin Small Letter C with Curl | Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative | 182 | |
U+0256 | ɖ | Latin Small Letter D with Tail | Voiced retroflex plosive | 106 | |
U+0257 | ɗ | Latin Small Letter D with Hook | Voiced alveolar implosive | 162 | |
U+0258 | ɘ | Latin Small Letter Reversed E | Close-mid central unrounded vowel | 397 | |
U+0259 | ə | Latin Small Letter Schwa | Mid central vowel | 322 | |
U+025A | ɚ | Latin Small Letter Schwa with Hook | Rhotacized Mid central vowel | 327 | |
U+025B | ɛ | Latin Small Letter Open E | Open-mid front unrounded vowel | 303 | |
U+025C | ɜ | Latin Small Letter Reversed Open E | Open-mid central unrounded vowel | 326 | |
U+025D | ɝ | Latin Small Letter Reversed Open E with Hook | Rhotacized Open-mid central unrounded vowel | ||
U+025E | ɞ | Latin Small Letter Closed Reversed Open E | Open-mid central rounded vowel | 395 | |
U+025F | ɟ | Latin Small Letter Dotless J with Stroke | Voiced palatal plosive | 108 | |
U+0260 | ɠ | Latin Small Letter G with Hook | Voiced velar implosive | 166 | |
U+0261 | ɡ | Latin Small Letter Script G | Voiced velar plosive | 110 | |
U+0262 | ɢ | Latin Letter Small Capital G | Voiced uvular plosive | 112 | |
U+0263 | ɣ | Latin Small Letter Gamma | Voiced velar fricative | 141 | |
U+0264 | ɤ | Latin Small Letter Rams Horn | Close-mid back unrounded vowel | 315 | |
U+0265 | ɥ | Latin Small Letter Turned H | Labial-palatal approximant | 171 | |
U+0266 | ɦ | Latin Small Letter H with Hook | Voiced glottal fricative | 147 | |
U+0267 | ɧ | Latin Small Letter Heng with Hook | Swedish sj-sound. Similar to: Voiceless postalveolar fricative, Voiceless velar fricative |
175 | |
U+0268 | ɨ | Latin Small Letter I with Stroke | Close central unrounded vowel | 317 | |
U+0269 | ɩ | Latin Small Letter Iota | pre-1989 form of "ɪ" (obsolete) | 399 | |
U+026A | ɪ
|
ɪ | Latin Letter Small Capital I | Near-close near-front unrounded vowel | 319 |
U+026B | ɫ
|
ɫ | Latin Small Letter L with Middle Tilde | Velar/pharyngeal Alveolar lateral approximant | 209 |
U+026C | ɬ
|
ɬ | Latin Small Letter L with Belt | Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative | 148 |
U+026D | ɭ
|
ɭ | Latin Small Letter L with Retroflex Hook | Retroflex lateral approximant | 156 |
U+026E | ɮ
|
ɮ | Latin Small Letter Lezh | Voiced alveolar lateral fricative | 149 |
U+026F | ɯ
|
ɯ | Latin Small Letter Turned M | Close back unrounded vowel | 316 |
U+0270 | ɰ
|
ɰ | Latin Small Letter Turned M with Long Leg | Velar approximant | 154 |
U+0271 | ɱ
|
ɱ | Latin Small Letter M with Hook | Labiodental nasal | 115 |
U+0272 | ɲ
|
ɲ | Latin Small Letter N with Left Hook | Palatal nasal | 118 |
U+0273 | ɳ
|
ɳ | Latin Small Letter N with Retroflex Hook | Retroflex nasal | 117 |
U+0274 | ɴ
|
ɴ | Latin Letter Small Capital N | Uvular nasal | 120 |
U+0275 | ɵ
|
ɵ | Latin Small Letter Barred O | Close-mid central rounded vowel | 323 |
U+0276 | ɶ
|
ɶ | Latin Letter Small Capital OE | Open front rounded vowel | 312 |
U+0277 | ɷ
|
ɷ | Latin Small Letter Closed Omega | pre-1989 form of "ʊ" (obsolete) | 398 |
U+0278 | ɸ
|
ɸ | Latin Small Letter Phi | Voiceless bilabial fricative | 126 |
U+0279 | ɹ
|
ɹ | Latin Small Letter Turned R | Alveolar approximant | 151 |
U+027A | ɺ
|
ɺ | Latin Small Letter Turned R with Long Leg | Alveolar lateral flap | 181 |
U+027B | ɻ
|
ɻ | Latin Small Letter Turned R with Hook | Retroflex approximant | 152 |
U+027C | ɼ
|
ɼ | Latin Small Letter R with Long Leg | Alveolar trill | 206 |
U+027D | ɽ
|
ɽ | Latin Small Letter R with Tail | Retroflex flap | 125 |
U+027E | ɾ
|
ɾ | Latin Small Letter R with Fishhook | Alveolar tap | 124 |
U+027F | ɿ
|
ɿ | Latin Small Letter Reversed R with Fishhook | Syllabic voiced alveolar fricative (Sinologist usage) | |
U+0280 | ʀ
|
ʀ | Latin Letter Small Capital R | Uvular trill | 123 |
U+0281 | ʁ
|
ʁ | Latin Letter Small Capital Inverted R | Voiced uvular fricative | 143 |
U+0282 | ʂ
|
ʂ | Latin Small Letter S with Hook | Voiceless retroflex fricative | 136 |
U+0283 | ʃ
|
ʃ | Latin Small Letter Esh | Voiceless postalveolar fricative | 134 |
U+0284 | ʄ
|
ʄ | Latin Small Letter Dotless J with Stroke and Hook | Voiced palatal implosive | 164 |
U+0285 | ʅ
|
ʅ | Latin Small Letter Squat Reversed Esh | Syllabic voiced retroflex fricative (Sinologist usage) | |
U+0286 | ʆ
|
ʆ | Latin Small Letter Esh with Curl | Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative (obsolete) | 204 |
U+0287 | ʇ
|
ʇ | Latin Small Letter Turned T | Dental click (obsolete) | 201 |
U+0288 | ʈ
|
ʈ | Latin Small Letter T with Retroflex Hook | Voiceless retroflex plosive | 105 |
U+0289 | ʉ
|
ʉ | Latin Small Letter U Bar | Close central rounded vowel | 318 |
U+028A | ʊ
|
ʊ | Latin Small Letter Upsilon | near-close near-back rounded vowel | 321 |
U+028B | ʋ
|
ʋ | Latin Small Letter V with Hook | Labiodental approximant | 150 |
U+028C | ʌ
|
ʌ | Latin Small Letter Turned V | Open-mid back unrounded vowel | 314 |
U+028D | ʍ
|
ʍ | Latin Small Letter Turned W | Voiceless labiovelar approximant | 169 |
U+028E | ʎ
|
ʎ | Latin Small Letter Turned Y | Palatal lateral approximant | 157 |
U+028F | ʏ
|
ʏ | Latin Letter Small Capital Y | Near-close near-front rounded vowel | 320 |
U+0290 | ʐ
|
ʐ | Latin Small Letter Z with Retroflex Hook | Voiced retroflex fricative | 137 |
U+0291 | ʑ
|
ʑ | Latin Small Letter Z with Curl | Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative | 183 |
U+0292 | ʒ
|
ʒ | Latin Small Letter Ezh | Voiced postalveolar fricative | 135 |
U+0293 | ʓ
|
ʓ | Latin Small Letter Ezh with Curl | Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative (obsolete) | 205 |
U+0294 | ʔ
|
ʔ | Latin Letter Glottal Stop | Glottal stop | 113 |
U+0295 | ʕ
|
ʕ | Latin Letter Pharyngeal Voiced Fricative | Voiced pharyngeal fricative | 145 |
U+0296 | ʖ
|
ʖ | Latin Letter Inverted Glottal Stop | Alveolar lateral click (obsolete) | 203 |
U+0297 | ʗ
|
ʗ | Latin Letter Stretched C | Postalveolar click (obsolete) | 202 |
U+0298 | ʘ
|
ʘ | Latin Letter Bilabial Click | Bilabial click | 176 |
U+0299 | ʙ
|
ʙ | Latin Letter Small Capital B | Bilabial trill | 121 |
U+029A | ʚ
|
ʚ | Latin Small Letter Closed Open E | Open-mid central rounded vowel | 396 |
U+029B | ʛ
|
ʛ | Latin Letter Small Capital G with Hook | Voiced uvular implosive | 168 |
U+029C | ʜ
|
ʜ | Latin Letter Small Capital H | Voiceless epiglottal fricative | 172 |
U+029D | ʝ
|
ʝ | Latin Small Letter J with Crossed Tail | Voiced palatal fricative | 139 |
U+029E | ʞ
|
ʞ | Latin Small Letter Turned K | Velar click (obsolete) | 291 |
U+029F | ʟ
|
ʟ | Latin Letter Small Capital L | Velar lateral approximant | 158 |
U+02A0 | ʠ
|
ʠ | Latin Small Letter Q with Hook | "Voiceless" uvular implosive (obsolete) | 167 |
U+02A1 | ʡ
|
ʡ | Latin Letter Glottal Stop with Stroke | Epiglottal plosive | 173 |
U+02A2 | ʢ
|
ʢ | Latin Letter Reversed Glottal Stop with Stroke | Voiced epiglottal fricative | 174 |
U+02A3 | ʣ
|
ʣ | Latin Small Letter DZ Digraph | Voiced alveolar affricate (obsolete) | 212 |
U+02A4 | ʤ
|
ʤ | Latin Small Letter Dezh Digraph | Voiced postalveolar affricate (obsolete) | 214 |
U+02A5 | ʥ
|
ʥ | Latin Small Letter DZ Digraph with Curl | Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate (obsolete) | 216 |
U+02A6 | ʦ
|
ʦ | Latin Small Letter TS Digraph | Voiceless alveolar affricate (obsolete) | 211 |
U+02A7 | ʧ
|
ʧ | Latin Small Letter Tesh Digraph | Voiceless postalveolar affricate (obsolete) | 213 |
U+02A8 | ʨ
|
ʨ | Latin Small Letter TC Digraph with Curl | Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate (obsolete) | 215 |
IPA characters disordered speech | |||||
U+02A9 | ʩ
|
ʩ | Latin Small Letter Feng Digraph | velopharyngeal fricative | 602 |
U+02AA | ʪ
|
ʪ | Latin Small Letter LS Digraph | Voiceless grooved lateral alveolar fricative | 603 |
U+02AB | ʫ
|
ʫ | Latin Small Letter LZ Digraph | voiced grooved lateral alveolar fricative | 604 |
U+02AC | ʬ
|
ʬ | Latin Letter Bilabial Percussive | Bilabial percussive | |
U+02AD | ʭ
|
ʭ | Latin Letter Bidental Percussive | Bidental percussive | 601 |
Additions for Sinology | |||||
U+02AE | ʮ
|
ʮ | Latin Small Letter Turned H with Fishhook | Syllabic labialized voiced alveolar fricative (Sinologist usage) | |
U+02AF | ʯ
|
ʯ | Latin Small Letter Turned H with Fishhook and Tail | Syllabic labialized voiced retroflex fricative (Sinologist usage) |
Subheadings
The IPA Extensions block contains only three subheadings, each associated with a set of characters encoded in a different version of Unicode, IPA extensions, IPA characters for disordered speech, and Additions for Sinology.[5]
IPA extensions
The IPA extensions are the first 89 characters of the IPA Extensions block, which includes Latin character variants and Greek borrowings that are regularly used only in IPA contexts.[5] The characters of the IPA extensions subheading were part of the original Unicode 1.0.
IPA characters for disordered speech
The extIPA characters for disordered speech are additions to the IPA for phonemes that do not occur in natural languages, but are needed for recording pre-linguistic utterances by babies, gibberish from otherwise lingual individuals, and other non-linguistic but phonetic utterances.[5] The IPA characters for disordered speech were added to the IPA Extensions block in Unicode version 3.0.
Additions for Sinology
The Additions for Sinology are two additional symbols for phonemic transcription of the languages of China.[5] The Additions for Sinology were added to the IPA Extensions block in Unicode version 4.0.
Compact table
IPA Extensions[1] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) | ||||||||||||||||
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | |
U+025x | ɐ | ɑ | ɒ | ɓ | ɔ | ɕ | ɖ | ɗ | ɘ | ə | ɚ | ɛ | ɜ | ɝ | ɞ | ɟ |
U+026x | ɠ | ɡ | ɢ | ɣ | ɤ | ɥ | ɦ | ɧ | ɨ | ɩ | ɪ | ɫ | ɬ | ɭ | ɮ | ɯ |
U+027x | ɰ | ɱ | ɲ | ɳ | ɴ | ɵ | ɶ | ɷ | ɸ | ɹ | ɺ | ɻ | ɼ | ɽ | ɾ | ɿ |
U+028x | ʀ | ʁ | ʂ | ʃ | ʄ | ʅ | ʆ | ʇ | ʈ | ʉ | ʊ | ʋ | ʌ | ʍ | ʎ | ʏ |
U+029x | ʐ | ʑ | ʒ | ʓ | ʔ | ʕ | ʖ | ʗ | ʘ | ʙ | ʚ | ʛ | ʜ | ʝ | ʞ | ʟ |
U+02Ax | ʠ | ʡ | ʢ | ʣ | ʤ | ʥ | ʦ | ʧ | ʨ | ʩ | ʪ | ʫ | ʬ | ʭ | ʮ | ʯ |
Notes
|
History
The IPA Extensions block has been present in Unicode since version 1.0, and was unchanged through the unification with ISO 10646. The block was filled out with extensions for representing disordered speech in version 3.0, and Sinological phonetic symbols in version 4.0.[6]
The following Unicode-related documents record the purpose and process of defining specific characters in the IPA Extensions block:
Version | Final code points[a] | Count | UTC ID | L2 ID | WG2 ID | Document |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.0.0 | U+0250..0296 | 71 | (to be determined) | |||
X3L2/95-090 | N1253 (doc, txt) | Umamaheswaran, V. S.; Ksar, Mike (1995-09-09), "4.2", Unconfirmed Minutes of WG 2 Meeting # 28 in Helsinki, Finland; 1995-06-26--27 | ||||
L2/05-212 | Davis, Mark (2005-08-05), Background Information on IPA | |||||
L2/07-022 | N3219 | Priest, Lorna; Aumann, Greg (2007-01-12), Glyph corrections for U+027F and U+0285 in TUS | ||||
L2/07-015 | Moore, Lisa (2007-02-08), "Glyph corrections for U+027F and U+0285 (C.7)", UTC #110 Minutes | |||||
L2/07-268 | N3253 (pdf, doc) | Umamaheswaran, V. S. (2007-07-26), "M50.5 (Phonetic characters glyph correction) [U+027F, U+0285]", Unconfirmed minutes of WG 2 meeting 50, Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany; 2007-04-24/27 | ||||
L2/10-268 | Priest, Lorna (2010-07-29), Annotation additions resulting from encoding LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H WITH HOOK | |||||
L2/22-071 | Jacquerye, Denis Moyogo (2022-02-08), Proposal to revise the glyphs of LATIN SMALL LETTER CLOSED OPEN E and LATIN SMALL LETTER CLOSED REVERSED OPEN E [U+025E, 029A] | |||||
L2/22-068 | Anderson, Deborah; Whistler, Ken; Pournader, Roozbeh; Constable, Peter (2022-04-15), "1c Latin Small Letter Closed Open E etc.", Recommendations to UTC #171 April 2022 on Script Proposals | |||||
L2/22-061 | Constable, Peter (2022-07-27), "Consensus 171-C16", Approved Minutes of UTC Meeting 171, Accept the glyph changes for U+025E LATIN SMALL LETTER CLOSED REVERSED OPEN E and U+029A LATIN SMALL LETTER CLOSED OPEN E for correction in a future version of the standard. | |||||
U+0297..02A8 | 18 | UTC/1991-047 | Becker, Joe, Extended Latin, Standard Phonetic, Modifier Letters, General Diacritical Marks, Greek, Cyrillic | |||
UTC/1991-048B | Whistler, Ken (1991-03-27), "IPA additions", Draft Minutes from the UTC meeting #46 day 2, 3/27 at Apple | |||||
3.0 | U+02A9..02AD | 5 | L2/98-209 | N1742 | Everson, Michael (1998-05-25), Additional IPA characters for the UCS | |
L2/98-293 | N1885 | "2.2", Comments on proposals to add various characters to ISO/IEC 10646, 1998-08-25 | ||||
L2/98-299 | N1845 | Everson, Michael (1998-09-08), Additional IPA "disturbed speech" characters for the UCS | ||||
L2/98-301 | N1847 | Everson, Michael (1998-09-12), Responses to NCITS/L2 and Unicode Consortium comments on numerous proposals | ||||
L2/98-372 | N1884R2 (pdf, doc) | Whistler, Ken; et al. (1998-09-22), Additional Characters for the UCS | ||||
L2/98-329 | N1920 | Combined PDAM registration and consideration ballot on WD for ISO/IEC 10646-1/Amd. 30, AMENDMENT 30: Additional Latin and other characters, 1998-10-28 | ||||
L2/99-010 | N1903 (pdf, html, doc) | Umamaheswaran, V. S. (1998-12-30), "8.2.10", Minutes of WG 2 meeting 35, London, U.K.; 1998-09-21--25 | ||||
4.0 | U+02AE..02AF | 2 | L2/01-272 | N2366 | Cook, Richard; Everson, Michael (2001-07-02), Proposal to add five phonetic characters to the UCS | |
L2/01-295R | Moore, Lisa (2001-11-06), Minutes from the UTC/L2 meeting #88 | |||||
L2/01-347 | N2366R | Cook, Richard; Everson, Michael (2001-09-20), Proposal to add six phonetic characters to the UCS | ||||
L2/02-154 | N2403 | Umamaheswaran, V. S. (2002-04-22), Draft minutes of WG 2 meeting 41, Hotel Phoenix, Singapore, 2001-10-15/19 | ||||
|
References
- ^ "Unicode character database". The Unicode Standard. Retrieved 2023-07-26.
- ^ "Enumerated Versions of The Unicode Standard". The Unicode Standard. Retrieved 2023-07-26.
- ^ "3.8: Block-by-Block Charts" (PDF). The Unicode Standard. Version 1.0. Unicode Consortium. Archived (PDF) from the original on Nov 27, 2023.
- ^ Wells, John C. (2003). "Phonetic symbols in word processing and on the web" (PDF). In Solé, Maria-Josep; Recasens, Daniel; Romero, Joaquín (eds.). Proceedings of the 15th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences. Barcelona: International Phonetic Association. Archived (PDF) from the original on Oct 22, 2023.
- ^ a b c d "Unicode 6.2 code charts" (PDF). The Unicode Standard. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ The Unicode Standard Version 1.0, Volume 1. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. 1991 [1990]. ISBN 0-201-56788-1.