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Languages with official status in India

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Language region map of India
States and union territories of India by the most spoken languages, among which most are scheduled but some are not scheduled languages, like Ao of Nagaland, Khasi of Meghalaya, Ladakhi of Ladakh, Mizo of Mizoram and Nyishi of Arunachal Pradesh. Exceptionally, Mizo attains state level official language status, despite not being a scheduled language.[1][2][3][a]
Part of a series on
Constitutionally recognised languages of India
Category
22 Official Languages of the Indian Republic
Related

There is no national language in the Republic of India.[4][5][6] However, article 343(1) of the Indian constitution specifically mentions that "The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals,"[6] while article 343(2) allowed for the continuation of English as an official language for another 15 years and 343(3) gave the parliament the power to provide for the use of English language after this period.[5] The clause 3 of the Official Languages Act, 1963 allows for the continued use of English language for official purposes of the Union government and for parliamentary business. Hence Indian English and Modern Standard Hindi are the Official Languages of the Government of India.[7]

Among all the official languages, Hindi is the fastest growing language of India, followed by Kashmiri in the second place, with Meitei (officially called Manipuri) as well as Gujarati, in the third place, and Bengali in the fourth place, according to the 2011 census of India.[8]

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Transcription

History

The official languages of British India before independence were English, Standard Urdu and later Modern Standard Hindi, with English being used for purposes at the central level.[9] The origins of official Hindi usage traces back to 1900, when MacDonnell issued an order, which allowed the “permissive — but not exclusive — use” of Devanagari for Hindustani language in the courts of North-Western Provinces.[10]

Following independence, the Constituent Assembly remained divided on the language issue, with some like R. V. Dulekar and Seth Govind Das favouring declaring Hindi written in Devanagari the national language of India immediately, while within the camp favouring Hindi there were divisions over whether the script of the language should be Devanagri or Roman, whether Hindustani with both Devanagri and Urdu scripts be retained, and whether the numerals should be international or Devanagri. Meanwhile, some like Frank Anthony, T A Ramalingam Chettiar, and Naziruddin Ahmad wanted to continue the usage of English, while Nehru although supporting the dropping of English as an official language in favour of Hindi/Hindustani cautioned against forcefully doing so in face of opposition in the South.[11][12] The Indian constitution, adopted in 1950; as a compromise, envisaged that English would be phased out in favour of Hindi, over a fifteen-year period, but gave Parliament the power to, by law, provide for the continued use of English even thereafter.[13]

Plans to make Hindi the sole official language of the Republic were met with resistance in many parts of the country, especially in Tamil Nadu, which had a history of opposing imposition of the Hindi language dating back to 1937, when the Justice Party opposed the then Congress led Madras Government's decision to make Hindi compulsory in secondary schools.[14]

Scheduled languages of the Indian Constitution

Not to be confused with Sahitya Akademi recognised advanced literary languages.

The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India contains a list of 22 "Scheduled Languages" (official languages) of the Republic of India.

Fastest growing scheduled languages of India — Hindi (first), Kashmiri (second), Gujarati & Meitei/Manipuri (third), Bengali (fourth) — based on 2011 census of India[8]

The table below lists the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India as set out in the Eighth Schedule as of May 2008, together with the regions where they are widely spoken and used as the state's official language. However, states are not mandated to choose their official languages from the scheduled languages. Sindhi is not official in any states or union territories even though it is listed in the Eighth Schedule.

List

Sr. No. Language[b] Family Speakers
(in millions, 2011)[15] 		Official recognition in State(s) ISO 639 code
1. Assamese Indo-Aryan, Eastern 15.3 as
2. Bengali Indo-Aryan, Eastern 97.2 bn
3. Bodo Tibeto-Burman 1.48 brx
4. Dogri Indo-Aryan, Northwestern 2.6 doi
5. Gujarati Indo-Aryan, Western 55.5 gu
6. Hindi Indo-Aryan, Central 528 hi
7. Kannada Dravidian 43.7 kn
8. Kashmiri Indo-Aryan, Dardic 6.8
  • Official: Jammu and Kashmir[17]
 ks
9. Konkani Indo-Aryan, Southern 2.25 gom
10. Maithili Indo-Aryan, Eastern 13.6 mai
11. Malayalam Dravidian 34.8 ml
12. Manipuri Tibeto-Burman 1.8 mni
13. Marathi Indo-Aryan, Southern 83 mr
14. Nepali Indo-Aryan, Northern 2.9 ne
15. Odia Indo-Aryan, Eastern 37.5 or
16. Punjabi Indo-Aryan, Northwestern 33.1 pa
17. Sanskrit Indo-Aryan 0.02
  • Additional: Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
 sa
18. Santali Austroasiatic 7.6
  • Additional: Jharkhand, West Bengal[28]
 sat
19. Sindhi Indo-Aryan, Northwestern 2.7 sd
20. Tamil Dravidian 69 ta
21. Telugu Dravidian 81.1 te
22. Urdu Indo-Aryan, Central 50.7
  • Official: Jammu and Kashmir
  • Additional: Andhra Pradesh,[29] Bihar, Delhi, Jharkhand, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal[20][21]
 ur

Benefits

For all the scheduled languages

The scheduled languages have the following benefits:

For some of the scheduled languages

  • 12 out of the 22 scheduled languages are made available in the official website of the Indian Prime Minister's Office, namely Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Meitei (Manipuri), Odia, Punjabi, Tamil and Telugu, in addition to English.[34]
  • 15 out of the 22 scheduled languages are made available in the Press Information Bureau (PIB) by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting of the Government of India (GOI), namely Assamese, Bengali, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Konkani, Malayalam, Marathi, Meitei (Manipuri), Odia, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu, in addition to English.[35][36]
  • 14 out of the 22 scheduled languages are selected by the Staff Selection Commission (SSC) of the Government of India, to be made available in the conduction of the Multi-Tasking (Non-Technical) Staff examination across the country, namely Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Konkani, Malayalam, Marathi, Meitei (Manipuri), Odia, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu, in addition to English.[37][38]

Demands for scheduled language status

At present, as per the Ministry of Home Affairs,[39] there are demands for inclusion of 38 more languages in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. These are: Angika, Banjara, Bajjika, Bhojpuri, Bhoti, Bhotia, Bundelkhandi, Chhattisgarhi, Dhatki, English, Garhwali, Gondi, Gujjari, Ho, Kachhi, Kamtapuri, Karbi, Khasi, Kodava, Kokborok, Kumaoni, Kurukh, Kurmali, Lepcha, Limbu, Mizo, Magahi, Mundari, Nagpuri, Nicobarese, Pahari, Pali, Rajasthani, Sambalpuri, Shauraseni Prakrit, Saraiki, Tenyidi and Tulu.[39]

Official languages of the Union

The front cover of a contemporary Indian passport, with the national emblem and inscriptions in the two official languages of Hindi and English.

The Indian constitution, in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union. Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, that is, on 26 January 1965. The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non-Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially Dravidian-speaking states whose languages were not related to Hindi at all. As a result, Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963,[40][41][42][43][44][45] which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965.

In late 1964, an attempt was made to expressly provide for an end to the use of English, but it was met with protests from states and territories, including Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Puducherry, Nagaland, Mizoram and Andhra Pradesh. Some of these protests also turned violent.[46] As a result, the proposal was dropped,[47][48] and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.[49]

The position was thus that the Union government continues to use English in addition to Hindi for its official purposes[50] as a "subsidiary official language",[51] but is also required to prepare and execute a program to progressively increase its use of Hindi.[52] The exact extent to which, and the areas in which, the Union government uses Hindi and English, respectively, is determined by the provisions of the Constitution, the Official Languages Act, 1963, the Official Languages Rules, 1976, and statutory instruments made by the Department of Official Language under these laws.

Department of Official Language was set up in June 1975 as an independent Department of the Ministry of Home Affairs.[53]

Parliamentary proceedings and laws

The Indian constitution distinguishes the language to be used in Parliamentary proceedings, and the language in which laws are to be made. Parliamentary business, according to the Constitution, may be conducted in either Hindi or English. The use of English in parliamentary proceedings was to be phased out at the end of fifteen years unless Parliament chose to extend its use, which Parliament did through the Official Languages Act, 1963.[54] Also, the constitution permits a person who is unable to express themselves in either Hindi or English to, with the permission of the Speaker of the relevant House, address the House in their mother tongue.[55]

In contrast, the constitution requires the authoritative text of all laws, including Parliamentary enactments and statutory instruments, to be in English, until Parliament decides otherwise. Parliament has not exercised its power to so decide, instead merely requiring that all such laws and instruments, and all bills brought before it, also be translated into Hindi, though the English text remains authoritative.[56] The Official Languages act, 1963 provides that the authoritative text of central acts, rules, regulations, etc., are published in Hindi as well in the official gazette by President of India.[57]

Judiciary

The constitution provides, and the Supreme Court of India has reiterated, that all proceedings in the Supreme Court and the High Courts shall be in English.[58] Parliament has the power to alter this by law but has not done so. However, in many high courts, there is, with consent from the president, allowance of the optional use of Hindi. Such proposals have been successful in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.[59]

Administration

The Official Language Act provides that the Union government shall use both Hindi and English in most administrative documents that are intended for the public, though the Union government is required by law to promote the use of Hindi.[40][60] The Official Languages Rules, in contrast, provide for a higher degree of use of Hindi in communications between offices of the central government (other than offices in Tamil Nadu, to which the rules do not apply).[61] Communications between different departments within the central government may be in English and Hindi (though the English text remains authoritative), although a translation into the other language must be provided if required.[62] Communications within offices of the same department, however, must be in Hindi if the offices are in Hindi-speaking states,[63] and in either Hindi or English otherwise with Hindi being used in proportion to the percentage of staff in the receiving office who have a working knowledge of Hindi.[64] Notes and memos in files may be in English and Hindi (though the English text remains authoritative), with the Government having a duty to provide a translation into the other language if required.[65]

Besides, every person submitting a petition for the redress of a grievance to a government officer or authority has a constitutional right to submit it in any language used in India.

Implementation

Various steps have been taken by the Indian government to implement the use and familiarisation of Hindi extensively. Dakshina Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha headquartered at Chennai was formed to spread Hindi in South Indian states. Regional Hindi implementation offices at Bangalore, Thiruvananthapuram, Mumbai, Kolkata, Guwahati, Bhopal, Delhi and Ghaziabad have been established to monitor the implementation of Hindi in Central government offices and PSUs.

Annual targets are set by the Department of Official Language regarding the amount of correspondence being carried out in Hindi. A Parliament Committee on Official Language constituted in 1976 periodically reviews the progress in the use of Hindi and submits a report to the President. The governmental body which makes policy decisions and established guidelines for the promotion of Hindi is the Kendriya Hindi Samiti (est. 1967). In every city that has more than ten central Government offices, a Town Official Language Implementation Committee is established and cash awards are given to government employees who write books in Hindi. All Central government offices and PSUs are to establish Hindi Cells for implementation of Hindi in their offices.[66]

In 2016, the government announced plans to promote Hindi in government offices in Southern and Northeast India.[67][68]

The Indian constitution does not specify the official languages to be used by the states for the conduct of their official functions and leaves each state free to, through its legislature, adopt Hindi or any language used in its territory as its official language or languages.[69] The language need not be one of those listed in the Eighth Schedule, and several states have adopted official languages which are not so listed. Examples include Kokborok in Tripura and Mizo in Mizoram.

Legislature and administration

The constitutional provisions in relation to use of the official language in legislation at the State level largely mirror those relating to the official language at the central level, with minor variations. State legislatures may conduct their business in their official language, Hindi or (for a transitional period, which the legislature can extend if it so chooses) English, and members who cannot use any of these have the same rights to their mother tongue with the Speaker's permission. The authoritative text of all laws must be in English unless Parliament passes a law permitting a state to use another language, and if the original text of a law is in a different language, an authoritative English translation of all laws must be prepared.

The state has the right to regulate the use of its official language in public administration, and in general, neither the constitution nor any central enactment imposes any restriction on this right. However, every person submitting a petition for the redress of a grievance to any officer or authority of the state government has a constitutional right to submit it in any language used in that state, regardless of its official status.

Besides, the constitution grants the central government, acting through the President, the power to issue certain directives to the government of a state in relation to the use of minority languages for official purposes. The President may direct a State to officially recognise a language spoken in its territory for specified purposes and in specified regions if its speakers demand it and satisfy him that a substantial proportion of the State's population desires its use. Similarly, States and local authorities are required to endeavour to provide primary education in the mother tongue for all linguistic minorities, regardless of whether their language is official in that State, and the President has the power to issue directions he deems necessary to ensure that they are provided these facilities.

State judiciary

States have significantly less freedom in relation to determining the language in which judicial proceedings in their respective High Courts will be conducted. The constitution gives the power to authorise the use of Hindi, or the state's official language in proceedings of the High Court to the Governor, rather than the state legislature and requires the Governor to obtain the consent of the President of India, who in these matters acts on the advice of the Government of India. The Official Languages Act gives the Governor a similar power, subject to similar conditions, in relation to the language in which the High Court's judgments will be delivered.[70]

Four states—Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan—[71] have been granted the right to conduct proceedings in their High Courts in their official language, which, for all of them, was Hindi. However, the only non-Hindi state to seek a similar power—Tamil Nadu, which sought the right to conduct proceedings in Tamil in the Madras High Court—had its application rejected by the central government earlier, which said it was advised to do so by the Supreme Court.[72] In 2006, the law ministry said that it would not object to Tamil Nadu state's desire to conduct Madras High Court proceedings in Tamil.[73][74][75][76][77] In 2010, the Chief Justice of the Madras High Court allowed lawyers to argue cases in Tamil.[78]

Official status in states and territories

Official languages of States

List of official languages of states of India

No. State Official language(s) Additional official language(s)
1. Andhra Pradesh Telugu,[79] Urdu[29] English[80]
2. Arunachal Pradesh English[81]
3. Assam Assamese,[82] Bodo Bengali in three districts of Barak Valley[83]
4. Bihar Hindi[84] Urdu[84]
5. Chhattisgarh Hindi[85] Chhattisgarhi[86][87]
6. Goa Konkani, English[88] Marathi[89]: 27 [90]
7. Gujarat Gujarati, Hindi[91]
8. Haryana Hindi[92] English,[89] Punjabi[93]
9. Himachal Pradesh Hindi[94] Sanskrit[95]
10. Jharkhand Hindi[81] Angika, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Bhumij, Ho, Kharia, Khortha, Kurmali, Kurukh, Magahi, Maithili, Mundari, Nagpuri, Odia, Santali, Urdu[28][96]
11. Karnataka Kannada
12. Kerala Malayalam English
13. Madhya Pradesh Hindi[97]
14. Maharashtra Marathi[98]
15. Manipur Manipuri[99] English
16. Meghalaya English[100] Khasi and Garo[101] (associate official in districts)
17. Mizoram Mizo, English[102]
18. Nagaland English
19. Odisha Odia[103] English
20. Punjab Punjabi[89]
21. Rajasthan Hindi
22. Sikkim English, Nepali, Sikkimese, Lepcha[89][104] Gurung, Limbu, Magar, Mukhia, Newari, Rai, Sherpa and Tamang[89]
23. Tamil Nadu Tamil English
24. Telangana Telugu Urdu[105][106]
25. Tripura Bengali, English, Kokborok[107][108][109]
26. Uttar Pradesh Hindi Urdu[110]
27. Uttarakhand Hindi Sanskrit
28. West Bengal Bengali, English[89][111] Nepali in Darjeeling and Kurseong sub-divisions;[89]
Urdu, Hindi, Odia, Santali, Punjabi, Kamtapuri, Rajbanshi, Kudmali/Kurmali, Kurukh and Telugu in blocks, divisions or districts with population greater than 10 per cent[20][21][112][113]

Official languages of Union Territories

Official languages of Union Territories[89]

No. Union territory Official language(s) Additional official language(s)
1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands Hindi,[114] English
2. Chandigarh English[115]
3. Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu Hindi,[116][117] English Gujarati
4. Delhi Hindi, English[81] Urdu, Punjabi[118]
5. Lakshadweep English[119][120] Hindi,[119] Malayalam[120]
6. Jammu and Kashmir Kashmiri, Dogri, Hindi, Urdu, English[121]
7. Ladakh Hindi, English
8. Puducherry Tamil, Telugu (in Yanam), Malayalam (in Mahe)[d][122][123] English, French[124]

Union–state and interstate communication

In places like railway stations, signboards are usually written in three languages - the state language (here Odia) and the two official languages Hindi and English.

The language in which communications between different states, or from the union government to a state or a person in a state, shall be sent is regulated by the Official Languages Act and, for states other than Tamil Nadu, by the Official Languages Rules. Communication between states which use Hindi as their official language is required to be in Hindi, whereas communication between a state whose official language is Hindi and one whose is not, is required to be in English, or, in Hindi with an accompanying English translation (unless the receiving state agrees to dispense with the translation).[50]

Communication between the union and states which use Hindi as their official language (classified by the Official Language Rules as "the states in Region A"), and with persons who live in those states, is generally in Hindi, except in certain cases.[125] Communication with a second category of states "Region B", which do not use Hindi as their official language but have elected to communicate with the union in Hindi (currently Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Punjab)[126] is usually in Hindi, whilst communications sent to an individual in those states may be in Hindi and English.[127] Communication with all other states "Region C", and with people living in them, is in English.[128]

Official Languages Rules of 1976

Region A: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh

Region B: Chandigarh, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Punjab

Region C: Others

Region A: Communications from a Union (India) Govt Office to a State/UT Govt Office shall be in Hindi only.

Region B: Communications from a Union (India) Govt Office to a State/UT Govt Office shall be in English and Hindi.

Region C: Communications from a Union (India) Govt Office to a State/UT Govt Office shall be in English only.

Writing systems

Main article: Official scripts of the Indian Republic
The letters of the official scripts of the Indian Republic of the "Indic family" used by the official languages of India –
(top row: Kannada/Telugu, Tamil, Gujarati;
middle row: Meitei, Devanagari, Eastern Nagari;
bottom row: Odia, Malayalam, Gurmukhi)

Each official language has a designated official script using which it is written for official purposes.

Official script(s) Scheduled language(s)
Devanagari[e] Bodo, Dogri, Hindi, Konkani,[f] Maithili, Marathi, Nepali, Sanskrit, Sindhi[g]
Bengali–Assamese (Eastern Nagari) Assamese, Bengali, Meitei (constitutionally termed as "Manipuri")[h]
Gujarati Gujarati
Gurmukhi Punjabi
Kannada[i] Kannada
Malayalam Malayalam
Meitei Mayek[j] Meitei (Manipuri)
Odia Odia
Ol Chiki Santali
Perso-Arabic script Kashmiri,[k] Urdu, Sindhi
Tamil Tamil
Telugu[i] Telugu

See also

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Notes

  1. ^ Some languages may be over- or underrepresented as the census data used is at the state-level. For example, while Urdu has 52 million speakers (2001), in no state is it a majority as the language itself is primarily limited to Indian Muslims yet has more native speakers than Gujarati.
  2. ^ Includes variants and dialects
  3. ^ In certain years, films of languages other than the scheduled languages also get eligible.[30]
  4. ^ See Official languages of Puducherry
  5. ^ For languages that are not natively written using Devanagari, an extended version called Parivardhita Devanagari was proposed.
  6. ^ Although Devanagri is promulgated as the official script, Romi script is used predominantly.
  7. ^ Used by Sindhis in India.[129] However, Perso-Arabic is the sole official script in Pakistani province Sindh and a co-official script along with Devanagari in India.
  8. ^ Meitei language uses both Bengali script and Meitei script as its official scripts simultaneously in accordance with "The Manipur Official Language (Amendment) Act, 2021".[130]
  9. ^ a b Although Kannada and Telugu alphabets together is a same script called Telugu–Kannada alphabet, they are officially recognised as separate scripts.
  10. ^ Although Eastern Nagari is also still widely in use.
  11. ^ Extended-Perso-Arabic is the official and widely used script.[131] Some sections within the Kashmiri Pandit community started writing in Devanagari after 1990,[132] and extended-Devanagari script is used to represent Kashmiri whenever books are written in Hindi.[133]

References

  1. ^ "Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 47th report (July 2008 to June 2010)" (PDF). Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India. pp. 84–89. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
  2. ^ "Languages Included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution | Department of Official Language | Ministry of Home Affairs | GoI". rajbhasha.gov.in. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
  3. ^ "Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 50th report (July 2012 to June 2013)" (PDF). Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 July 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
  4. ^ PTI (25 January 2010). "Hindi, not a national language: Court". The Hindu. Retrieved 20 November 2018.
  5. ^ a b "Constitutional Provisions: Official Language Related Part-17 of The Constitution Of India". Department of Official Language, Government of India. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
  6. ^ a b "THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE POLICY OF THE UNION | Department of Official Language | Ministry of Home Affairs | GoI". rajbhasha.nic.in. Retrieved 20 March 2019.
  7. ^ "THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES ACT, 1963". rajbhasha.nic.in. Retrieved 3 May 2022.
  8. ^ a b —R, Aishwaryaa (6 June 2019). "What census data reveals about use of Indian languages". Deccan Herald. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
    —Pallapothu, Sravan (28 June 2018). "Hindi Added 100Mn Speakers In A Decade; Kashmiri 2nd Fast Growing Language". Indiaspend.com. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
    —IndiaSpend (2 July 2018). "Hindi fastest growing language in India, finds 100 million new speakers". Business Standard. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
    —Mishra, Mayank; Aggarwal, Piyush (11 April 2022). "Hindi grew rapidly in non-Hindi states even without official mandate". India Today. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
  9. ^ Mollin, Sandra (2006). Euro-English: assessing variety status. Gunter Narr Verlag. p. 17. ISBN 978-3-8233-6250-0.
  10. ^ Rai, Alok (2001). Hindi Nationalism (tracks for the Times). Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-81-250-1979-4.
  11. ^ "Hindi Diwas, and the history of the debate over Hindi's status". The Indian Express. 14 September 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
  12. ^ "Hindi Diwas: How Constituent Assembly decided on Hindi as the official, and not national, language of India". The Indian Express. 14 September 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
  13. ^ Kanchan Chandra, "Ethnic Bargains, Group Instability, and Social Choice Theory", Politics and Society 29, 3: 337–62.
  14. ^ Ramakrishnan, T. (17 October 2022). "Explained | Hindi imposition and its discontents". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
  15. ^ "Statement 1 – Abstract of Speakers' Strength of Languages and Mother Tongues – 2011" (PDF). Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 June 2018.
  16. ^ "Jharkhand's 11 second languages will create new jobs: But also enrich national culture | BiharDays". Archived from the original on 6 January 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
  17. ^ a b Das, Ananya (2 September 2020). "Cabinet approves Bill to include Kashmiri, Dogri, Hindi as official languages in Jammu and Kashmir". Zee News. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
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