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Parasympathetic nervous system

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"PSNS" redirects here. For the naval shipyard in Washington, see Puget Sound Naval Shipyard.
Parasympathetic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system innervation, showing the parasympathetic (craniosacral) systems in blue.
Details
Identifiers
Latinpars parasympathica divisionis autonomici systematis
Acronym(s)PSNS
MeSHD010275
TA98A14.3.02.001
TA26661
FMA9907
Anatomical terminology

The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is one of the three divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the others being the sympathetic nervous system and the enteric nervous system.[1][2] The enteric nervous system is sometimes considered part of the autonomic nervous system, and sometimes considered an independent system.[3]

The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The parasympathetic system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed-and-breed"[4] activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation (tears), urination, digestion, and defecation. Its action is described as being complementary to that of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for stimulating activities associated with the fight-or-flight response.

Nerve fibres of the parasympathetic nervous system arise from the central nervous system. Specific nerves include several cranial nerves, specifically the oculomotor nerve, facial nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, and vagus nerve. Three spinal nerves in the sacrum (S2–4), commonly referred to as the pelvic splanchnic nerves, also act as parasympathetic nerves.

Owing to its location, the parasympathetic system is commonly referred to as having "craniosacral outflow", which stands in contrast to the sympathetic nervous system, which is said to have "thoracolumbar outflow".[5]

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  • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology #15
  • Neurology | Parasympathetic Nervous System
  • Sympathetic versus Parasympathetic Nervous System | Nervous System
  • The Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
  • ANS - 2 | Parasympathetic Nervous System

Transcription

Consider your heart for a moment. For the average person -- at rest, like you probably are, sitting there watching me -- the heart beats at around 60 beats per minute. Once a second. Nice and easy. But if you were to somehow disconnect your heart from your autonomic nervous system, things, as you might imagine, would change. But, your heart would not stop. Actually, it would be the opposite. It would speed up. It would start beating at around 100 beats per minute -- and that’s just at rest. With your heart beating two-thirds faster than normal, before you even broke a sweat, your cardiac muscle would experience a lot of extra wear and tear. The surrounding blood vessels would be under enormous pressure. And your body would suddenly require -- and waste -- a lot of energy. Basically, you’d be out of balance. Part of what keeps your heart under control is your parasympathetic nervous system. It’s often described as the calming side of your autonomic system -- a kind of antidote to the effects of stress created by the sympathetic system. But it’s really much more than that. Unlike your sympathetic division, which lets you deal with the crisis of the now, the parasympathetic system allows your body to handle … everything else. It not only calms you down after being stressed out, it’s what allows you to digest food, to reproduce, to excrete waste, to fight off infections. Basically, it lets you do the business of living. But our bodies can only do that when they are in balance, somewhere between excitement and inhibition, both aroused enough and calm enough to keep things working. So the parasympathetic system is why our hearts don’t pump so hard that they explode, sure. But it also explains a lot of other stuff about our bodies. Oh, but just one thing? Learning about the parasympathetic system is going to involve a lot of memorizing. Hope that doesn’t stress you out. You will recall that our sympathetic & parasympathetic systems not only have different functions -- more or less engaging the same organs to opposite effects -- they also have different structures. Their ganglia, for example, are located in different places: The sympathetic ganglia are located near the spinal cord, while on the parasympathetic side, they’re close to the effectors. And likewise, the use of neurotransmitters in the two systems is similar, but not quite the same. In both systems, neurons release acetylcholine, or ACh, in their preganglionic synapses. But in your parasympathetic system, the postganglionic neurons release ACh at their synapses with the effector organs, too... ...as opposed to in the sympathetic system, where effectors get a dose of norepinephrine instead. But the biggest anatomical difference between these two systems has to do with the physical networks that they form as they reach throughout your body. While the sympathetic nerves all spring from the thoracolumbar area of your spinal cord, right around your midsection, the nerves of the parasympathetic division are craniosacral. And with the exception of a couple of sacral nerves near the tailbone that run to the bladder and genitals and rectum, most of these nerves never go through the spinal cord. Instead, they run right from the brain almost all the way to their effectors. There are 12 of these cranial nerves, and they vary in terms of what kinds of neurons they contain. I mean, we’re talking about the autonomic system here, but they are not all autonomic motor fibers. Some of your cranial nerves also carry motor fibers that control voluntary functions, like moving your eyeballs around. And others carry only sensory fibers, which relay data to and from your sensory organs. And, you know, just to keep things interesting, some of your cranial nerves carry both motor and sensory neurons. So, which ones are where? And what exactly does each one of these 12 nerves do? As anatomists, we have to keep track of the human wiring-diagram that are cranial nerves, because you don’t want to end up like some sidekick in a ‘90s action movie who has to defuse a bomb all by himself. SHOULD I CUT THE RED WIRE OR THE BLACK WIRE? Honestly, though, if you find yourself inside of somebody’s brain stem you probably shouldn’t be cutting anything. Since all 12 of these cranial nerves are important, you’re gonna have to come up with some kind of mnemonics to help you keep track of both their names and their functions. You’ll need to know what each one is called, whether it’s a sensory nerve, a motor nerve, or both. And the map that we follow of the cranial nerves is based on a ventral view of the brain -- looking at its underside, with the anterior portion at the top, and posterior on the bottom. First, let’s tackle the names. Starting at the top, the first cranial nerve you encounter is the olfactory nerve, which takes scent information gathered by the nose and sends it to the brain. Followed by the optic nerve, which does the same, but with visual data. Then there’s oculomotor, which controls four of the six muscles that control the movements of your eyes. The next nerve, near the center of the brain’s ventral side, is the trochlear nerve, which controls a single muscle in the eye, and it lets you do this. Just below that is the trigeminal nerve, the largest of the cranial nerves, which branches into three main strands -- hence the ‘tri’ -- and innervates the face and jaw muscles. After that there’s the abducens, which stimulates the muscles that let your eyes do this -- from side to side, followed by the facial nerve, which operates the muscles that make most facial expressions possible. Then there’s the auditory nerve. You can probably guess what that’s for. You might notice that, up until the auditory nerve, the cranial nerves mostly control organs in the front of the cranium -- mainly the eyes and facial muscles. But as you work your way down, the nerves tend to innervate the lower and more posterior portions of the head. Like the glossopharyngeal nerve, which leads to your tongue and your pharynx. That’s followed by your vagus nerve -- you should definitely remember that one -- and then the spinal accessory nerve -- which has to do with moving your head and shoulders, and not whether your belt matches your shoes. Lastly there’s the hypoglossal, the nerve that allows you to swallow and talk, among other things that you do with your mouth and tongue. That was a lot of information and probably new words, so how are you gonna remember it all? Well, by finding a way to remember the first letter of each name, in order. Which is: O-O-O .. T-T … A-F-A … G-V-S-H. That doesn’t spell anything useful at all. There is a mnemonic that you’ll probably hear in school that goes like this: On old Olympus’ towering top, a Fin and German viewed some hops. That’s pretty weird sounding -- not terribly easy to remember. I mean, Olympus? Fin? Hops? There’s gotta be something more relevant to us 21st century science lovers. Like, the Lord of the Rings fans out there might prefer something along the lines of: Onward old orcs! Toward the Argonath for a Great Villain! Slay Hobbits! I’m just trying to help. Whatever device you use to remember the names of the cranial nerves, you also have to keep track of their functions -- that is, whether they’re sensory, motor, or both. So, again from top to bottom, a lot of teachers use this sequence of S’s, M’s and B’s to remember: Some say marry money, but my brother says big brains matter more. That one’s not so bad. But I don’t know, maybe you’ll have better luck with something like this: Sorry, Sherlock -- Mean Moriarty Beat Me, But Some Bobbies Busted Moriarty Masterfully! You are, of course, invited to think up your own. And feel free to share them in the comments, hopefully there will be some good ones down there -- anything would be better than Fins and Hops But if you’re going to commit one cranial nerve type to memory, it should be 10, the vagus nerve. This long and extensive nerve stretches from near the brainstem down to most of your visceral organs, including your heart, lungs, and stomach. The vagus nerves work as a two-way street, ferrying incoming sensory information from the peripheral system to the brain, and transmitting outgoing motor instructions from the brain to the rest of the body. So it’s a “B” nerve, because it has “both” sensory and motor functions. And usually you don’t notice this nerve at work, because its functions are mostly automatic. Say you’ve had a really stressful day, so your sympathetic system is charged up. You come home, crash on the couch, mow down a half a pizza. Your stomach sends signals to your brain through the sensory nerve axons in your vagus nerve, telling you that your belly is full of starch and protein and fat. Your brain sees that your stomach is churning away, which is a usual parasympathetic activity, so it sends signals back down through the vagus nerve, triggering other parasympathetic responses -- like slowing down your heart rate, putting some glucose back into storage, and reducing all that norepinephrine that your sympathetic system was pumping out all day. Soon, you start feeling more relaxed. Which is just one reason why, for some people, eating is a way of reducing stress and anxiety. In fact, it can feel so good that even though your stomach is full, you might continue eating. So, like I mentioned before, it can be easy to think of the two divisions of your autonomic system as opposites or even rivals, but that’s a little off the mark. Looking at your body as a whole, you should picture them as two sides of a scale -- sometimes it’s balanced in the middle, and sometimes it leans to the left or right, depending on what's happening. That balance is the essence of homeostasis, and as you’ll recall, homeostasis is the key to life. Here’s something else that’s important for life: sex. It mostly falls within the parasympathetic domain of “necessary but not an emergency.” But in order to effectively do it, you need help from both systems. First, the parasympathetic system has to make sure you’re calm enough to even think about sex, and then funnel extra blood away from your muscles and down to your genitals -- which is why too much stress and anxiety can lead to sexual dysfunction. But you also need a burst of that sympathetic system to excite you, and keep you excited. So like two sides of the scale, the balance depends on having the right amount of both. The rate of action potentials travelling through each division is known as your “sympathetic tone” and your “parasympathetic tone.” And, most of the time, our parasympathetic tone is actually dominant, keeping down the caged animal that is your sympathetic response. That’s why you need your parasympathetic system to keep your heart from racing like a rabbit’s. And why, most of the time, our bodies can do the eating, and sex-having, and all of the other fun tasks that make up the business of living. Today on Crash Course: Anatomy & Physiology we looked at the parasympathetic nervous system, its structural differences from the sympathetic system, and the 12 cranial nerves. We also looked at the vagus nerve as a way of understanding how parasympathetic responses work, and how they make our lives possible. Big shout out and thank you to our Headmaster of Learning, Thomas Frank whose generous contribution on Patreon keeps Crash Course alive and well for everyone. Thank you, Thomas. If you want to help us keep making great videos like this one, you can check out patreon.com/crashcourse This episode of Crash Course was co-sponsored by Jennifer K. Koons, Tim Wisard, and Mich Acosta. This episode of Crash Course was filmed in the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio. We got a plaque. I wanted to show you the plaque before we put it up on the wall. It was written by Kathleen Yale, edited by Blake de Pastino, and our consultant, is Dr. Brandon Jackson. Our director is Nicholas Jenkins, the script supervisor and editor is Nicole Sweeney, our sound designer is Michael Aranda, and the graphics team is Thought Café

Structure

The parasympathetic nerves are autonomic or visceral [6][7] branches of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Parasympathetic nerve supply arises through three primary areas:

  1. Certain cranial nerves in the cranium, namely the preganglionic parasympathetic nerves (CN III, CN VII, CN IX and CN X) usually arise from specific nuclei in the central nervous system (CNS) and synapse at one of four parasympathetic ganglia: ciliary, pterygopalatine, otic, or submandibular. From these four ganglia the parasympathetic nerves complete their journey to target tissues via trigeminal branches (ophthalmic nerve, maxillary nerve, mandibular nerve).
  2. The vagus nerve (CN X) does not participate in these cranial ganglia as most of its parasympathetic fibers are destined for a broad array of ganglia on or near thoracic viscera (esophagus, trachea, heart, lungs) and abdominal viscera (stomach, pancreas, liver, kidneys, small intestine, and about half of the large intestine). The vagus innervation ends at the junction between the midgut and hindgut, just before the splenic flexure of the transverse colon.
  3. The pelvic splanchnic efferent preganglionic nerve cell bodies reside in the lateral gray horn of the spinal cord at the T12–L1 vertebral levels (the spinal cord terminates at the L1–L2 vertebrae with the conus medullaris), and their axons exit the vertebral column as S2–S4 spinal nerves through the sacral foramina.[8] Their axons continue away from the CNS to synapse at an autonomic ganglion. The parasympathetic ganglion where these preganglionic neurons synapse will be close to the organ of innervation. This differs from the sympathetic nervous system, where synapses between pre- and post-ganglionic efferent nerves in general occur at ganglia that are farther away from the target organ.

As in the sympathetic nervous system, efferent parasympathetic nerve signals are carried from the central nervous system to their targets by a system of two neurons. The first neuron in this pathway is referred to as the preganglionic or presynaptic neuron. Its cell body sits in the central nervous system and its axon usually extends to synapse with the dendrites of a postganglionic neuron somewhere else in the body. The axons of presynaptic parasympathetic neurons are usually long, extending from the CNS into a ganglion that is either very close to or embedded in their target organ. As a result, the postsynaptic parasympathetic nerve fibers are very short.[9]: 42 

Cranial nerves

The oculomotor nerve is responsible for a number of parasympathetic functions related to the eye.[10] The oculomotor PNS fibers originate in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus in the central nervous system and travel through the superior orbital fissure to synapse in the ciliary ganglion located just behind the orbit (eye).[11] From the ciliary ganglion the postganglionic parasympathetic fibers leave via short ciliary nerve fibers, a continuation of the nasociliary nerve (a branch of ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V1)). The short ciliary nerves innervate the orbit to control the ciliary muscle (responsible for accommodation) and the iris sphincter muscle, which is responsible for miosis or constriction of the pupil (in response to light or accommodation). There are two motors that are part of the oculomotor nerve known as the somatic motor and visceral motor. The somatic motor is responsible for moving the eye in precise motions and for keeping the eye fixated on an object. The visceral motor helps constrict the pupil.[12]

The parasympathetic aspect of the facial nerve controls secretion of the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands, the lacrimal gland, and the glands associated with the nasal cavity. The preganglionic fibers originate within the CNS in the superior salivatory nucleus and leave as the intermediate nerve (which some consider a separate cranial nerve altogether) to connect with the facial nerve just distal (further out) to it surfacing the central nervous system. Just after the facial nerve geniculate ganglion (general sensory ganglion) in the temporal bone, the facial nerve gives off two separate parasympathetic nerves. The first is the greater petrosal nerve and the second is the chorda tympani. The greater petrosal nerve travels through the middle ear and eventually combines with the deep petrosal nerve (sympathetic fibers) to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal. The parasympathetic fibers of the nerve of the pterygoid canal synapse at the pterygopalatine ganglion, which is closely associated with the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2). The postganglionic parasympathetic fibers leave the pterygopalatine ganglion in several directions. One division leaves on the zygomatic division of CN V2 and travels on a communicating branch to unite with the lacrimal nerve (branch of the ophthalmic nerve of CN V1) before synapsing at the lacrimal gland. These parasympathetic to the lacrimal gland control tear production.[13]

A separate group of parasympathetic leaving from the pterygopalatine ganglion are the descending palatine nerves (CN V2 branch), which include the greater and lesser palatine nerves. The greater palatine parasympathetic synapse on the hard palate and regulate mucus glands located there. The lesser palatine nerve synapses at the soft palate and controls sparse taste receptors and mucus glands. Yet another set of divisions from the pterygopalatine ganglion are the posterior, superior, and inferior lateral nasal nerves; and the nasopalatine nerves (all branches of CN V2, maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve) that bring parasympathetic innervation to glands of the nasal mucosa. The second parasympathetic branch that leaves the facial nerve is the chorda tympani. This nerve carries secretomotor fibers to the submandibular and sublingual glands. The chorda tympani travels through the middle ear and attaches to the lingual nerve (mandibular division of trigeminal, CN V3). After joining the lingual nerve, the preganglionic fibers synapse at the submandibular ganglion and send postganglionic fibers to the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands.

The glossopharyngeal nerve has parasympathetic fibers that innervate the parotid salivary gland. The preganglionic fibers depart CN IX as the tympanic nerve and continue to the middle ear where they make up a tympanic plexus on the cochlear promontory of the mesotympanum. The tympanic plexus of nerves rejoin and form the lesser petrosal nerve and exit through the foramen ovale to synapse at the otic ganglion. From the otic ganglion postganglionic parasympathetic fibers travel with the auriculotemporal nerve (mandibular branch of trigeminal, CN V3) to the parotid salivary gland.

Vagus nerve

The vagus nerve, named after the Latin word vagus (because the nerve controls such a broad range of target tissues – vagus in Latin literally means "wandering"), has parasympathetic functions that originate in the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve and the nucleus ambiguus in the CNS. The vagus nerve is an unusual cranial parasympathetic in that it does not join the trigeminal nerve in order to get to its target tissues. Another peculiarity is that the vagus has an autonomic ganglion associated with it at approximately the level of C1 vertebra. The vagus gives no parasympathetic to the cranium. The vagus nerve is hard to track definitively due to its ubiquitous nature in the thorax and abdomen so the major contributions will be discussed. Several parasympathetic nerves come off the vagus nerve as it enters the thorax. One nerve is the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which becomes the inferior laryngeal nerve. From the left vagus nerve the recurrent laryngeal nerve hooks around the aorta to travel back up to the larynx and proximal esophagus while, from the right vagus nerve, the recurrent laryngeal nerve hooks around the right subclavian artery to travel back up to the same location as its counterpart. These different paths are a direct result of embryological development of the circulatory system. Each recurrent laryngeal nerve supplies the trachea and the esophagus with parasympathetic secretomotor innervation for glands associated with them (and other fibers that are not PN).

Another nerve that comes off the vagus nerves approximately at the level of entering the thorax are the cardiac nerves. These cardiac nerves go on to form cardiac and pulmonary plexuses around the heart and lungs. As the main vagus nerves continue into the thorax they become intimately linked with the esophagus and sympathetic nerves from the sympathetic trunks to form the esophageal plexus. This is very efficient as the major function of the vagus nerve from there on will be control of the gut smooth muscles and glands. As the esophageal plexus enter the abdomen through the esophageal hiatus anterior and posterior vagus trunks form. The vagus trunks then join with preaortic sympathetic ganglion around the aorta to disperse with the blood vessels and sympathetic nerves throughout the abdomen. The extent of the parasympathetic in the abdomen include the pancreas, kidneys, liver, gall bladder, stomach and gut tube. The vagus contribution of parasympathetic continues down the gut tube until the end of the midgut. The midgut ends two thirds of the way across the transverse colon near the splenic flexure.[14]

Pelvic splanchnic nerves

The pelvic splanchnic nerves, S2–4, work in tandem to innervate the pelvic viscera. Unlike in the cranium, where one parasympathetic is in charge of one particular tissue or region, for the most part the pelvic splanchnics each contribute fibers to pelvic viscera by traveling to one or more plexuses before being dispersed to the target tissue. These plexuses are composed of mixed autonomic nerve fibers (parasympathetic and sympathetic) and include the vesical, prostatic, rectal, uterovaginal, and inferior hypogastric plexuses. The preganglionic neurons in the pathway do not synapse in a ganglion as in the cranium but rather in the walls of the tissues or organs that they innervate. The fiber paths are variable and each individual's autonomic nervous system in the pelvis is unique. The visceral tissues in the pelvis that the parasympathetic nerve pathway controls include those of the urinary bladder, ureters, urinary sphincter, anal sphincter, uterus, prostate, glands, vagina, and penis. Unconsciously, the parasympathetic will cause peristaltic movements of the ureters and intestines, moving urine from the kidneys into the bladder and food down the intestinal tract and, upon necessity, the parasympathetic will assist in excreting urine from the bladder or defecation. Stimulation of the parasympathetic will cause the detrusor muscle (urinary bladder wall) to contract and simultaneously relax the internal sphincter muscle between the bladder and the urethra, allowing the bladder to void. Also, parasympathetic stimulation of the internal anal sphincter will relax this muscle to allow defecation. There are other skeletal muscles involved with these processes but the parasympathetic plays a huge role in continence and bowel retention.

A study published in 2016, suggests that all sacral autonomic output may be sympathetic; indicating that the rectum, bladder and reproductive organs may only be innervated by the sympathetic nervous system. This suggestion is based on detailed analysis of 15 phenotypic and ontogenetic factors differentiating sympathetic from parasympathetic neurons in the mouse. Assuming that the reported findings most likely applies to other mammals as well, this perspective suggests a simplified, bipartite architecture of the autonomic nervous system, in which the parasympathetic nervous system receives input from cranial nerves exclusively and the sympathetic nervous system from thoracic to sacral spinal nerves.[15]

Autonomic nervous system's jurisdiction to organs in the human body edit
Organ Nerves[16] Spinal column origin[16]
stomach T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10
duodenum T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10
jejunum and ileum T5, T6, T7, T8, T9
spleen T6, T7, T8
gallbladder and liver T6, T7, T8, T9
colon
pancreatic head T8, T9
appendix T10
bladder S2-S4
kidneys and ureters T11, T12

Function

Further information: Parasympathetic rebound

Sensation

The afferent fibers of the autonomic nervous system, which transmit sensory information from the internal organs of the body back to the central nervous system, are not divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers as the efferent fibers are.[9]: 34–35  Instead, autonomic sensory information is conducted by general visceral afferent fibers.

General visceral afferent sensations are mostly unconscious visceral motor reflex sensations from hollow organs and glands that are transmitted to the CNS. While the unconscious reflex arcs normally are undetectable, in certain instances they may send pain sensations to the CNS masked as referred pain. If the peritoneal cavity becomes inflamed or if the bowel is suddenly distended, the body will interpret the afferent pain stimulus as somatic in origin. This pain is usually non-localized. The pain is also usually referred to dermatomes that are at the same spinal nerve level as the visceral afferent synapse.

Vascular effects

Heart rate is largely controlled by the heart's internal pacemaker activity. Considering a healthy heart, the main pacemaker is a collection of cells on the border of the atria and vena cava called the sinoatrial node. Heart cells have the ability to generate electrical activity independent of external stimulation. As a result, the cells of the node spontaneously generate electrical activity that is subsequently conducted throughout the heart, resulting in a regular heart rate.

In absence of any external stimuli, sinoatrial pacing contributes to maintain the heart rate in the range of 60-100 beats per minute (bpm).[17] At the same time, the two branches of the autonomic nervous system act in a complementary way increasing or slowing the heart rate. In this context, the vagus nerve acts on sinoatrial node slowing its conduction thus actively modulating vagal tone accordingly. This modulation is mediated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and downstream changes to ionic currents and calcium of heart cells.[18]

The vagus nerve plays a crucial role in heart rate regulation by modulating the response of sinoatrial node; vagal tone can be quantified by investigating heart rate modulation induced by vagal tone changes. As a general consideration, increased vagal tone (and thus vagal action) is associated with a diminished and more variable heart rate.[19][20] The main mechanism by which the parasympathetic nervous system acts on vascular and cardiac control is the so-called respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA). RSA is described as the physiological and rhythmical fluctuation of heart rate at the respiration frequency, characterized by heart rate increase during inspiration and decrease during expiration.

Sexual activity

Another role that the parasympathetic nervous system plays is in sexual activity. In males, the cavernous nerves from the prostatic plexus stimulate smooth muscles in the fibrous trabeculae of the coiled helicine arteries of penis to relax and allow blood to fill the two corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum of the penis, making it rigid to prepare for sexual activity. Upon emission of ejaculate, the sympathetics participate and cause peristalsis of the ductus deferens and closure of the internal urethral sphincter to prevent semen from entering the bladder. At the same time, parasympathetics cause peristalsis of the urethral muscle, and the pudendal nerve causes contraction of the bulbospongiosus (skeletal muscle is not via PN), to forcibly emit the semen. During remission the penis becomes flaccid again. In the female, there is erectile tissue analogous to the male yet less substantial that plays a large role in sexual stimulation. The PN cause release of secretions in the female that decrease friction. Also in the female, the parasympathetics innervate the fallopian tubes, which helps peristaltic contractions and movement of the oocyte to the uterus for implantation. The secretions from the female genital tract aid in sperm migration. The PN (and SN to a lesser extent) play a significant role in reproduction.[9]

Receptors

The parasympathetic nervous system uses chiefly acetylcholine (ACh) as its neurotransmitter, although peptides (such as cholecystokinin) can be used.[21][22] The ACh acts on two types of receptors, the muscarinic and nicotinic cholinergic receptors. Most transmissions occur in two stages: When stimulated, the preganglionic neuron releases ACh at the ganglion, which acts on nicotinic receptors of postganglionic neurons. The postganglionic neuron then releases ACh to stimulate the muscarinic receptors of the target organ.

Types of muscarinic receptors

The five main types of muscarinic receptors:

Types of nicotinic receptors

In vertebrates, nicotinic receptors are broadly classified into two subtypes based on their primary sites of expression: muscle-type nicotinic receptors (N1) primarily for somatic motor neurons; and neuronal-type nicotinic receptors (N2) primarily for autonomic nervous system.[24]

Relationship to sympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. A mnemonic to summarize the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system is SSLUDD (sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion and defecation).

Clinical significance

The functions promoted by activity in the parasympathetic nervous system are associated with our day-to-day living. The parasympathetic nervous system promotes digestion and the synthesis of glycogen, and allows for normal function and behavior.

Parasympathetic action helps in digestion and absorption of food by increasing the activity of the intestinal musculature, increasing gastric secretion, and relaxing the pyloric sphincter. It is called the “rest and digest” division of the ANS.[25]

The parasympathetic nervous system decreases respiration and heart rate and increases digestion. Stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system results in:

  • Constriction of pupils
  • Decreased heart rate and blood pressure
  • Constriction of bronchial muscles
  • Increase in digestion
  • Increased production of saliva and mucus
  • Increase in urine secretion[26]

History

The terminology ‘Parasympathetic nervous system’ was introduced by John Newport Langley in 1921. He was the first person who put forward the concept of PSNS as the second division of the autonomic nervous system.[27]

References

  1. ^ Langley, John Newport (1921). The Autonomic Nervous System. Cambridge: Heffer. pp. 10. ISBN 9781152710191.
  2. ^ Pocock, Gillian (2006). Human Physiology (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 63–64. ISBN 978-0-19-856878-0.
  3. ^ "14.1B: Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System". Medicine LibreTexts. 2018-07-21. Retrieved 2021-11-14.
  4. ^ McCorry, LK (Aug 15, 2007). "Physiology of the autonomic nervous system". American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 71 (4): 78. doi:10.5688/aj710478. PMC 1959222. PMID 17786266.
  5. ^ "- YouTube". www.youtube.com. Archived from the original on 2021-11-17. Retrieved 2021-05-17.
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