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Benjamin Franklin Mudge

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Benjamin Franklin Mudge
2nd Mayor of Lynn, Massachusetts
1st State Geologist of Kansas, 1864
In office
June 16, 1852 – April 4, 1853
Preceded byGeorge Hood
Succeeded byDaniel C. Baker
Personal details
Born(1817-08-11)August 11, 1817
Orrington, Maine
DiedNovember 21, 1879(1879-11-21) (aged 62)
Manhattan, Kansas
SpouseMary E. Beckford
Parent(s)James and Ruth Mudge
OccupationGeologist, paleontologist, teacher, lawyer, chemist

Benjamin Franklin Mudge (August 11, 1817 – November 21, 1879) was an American lawyer, geologist and teacher. Briefly the mayor of Lynn, Massachusetts, he later moved to Kansas where he was appointed the first State Geologist. He led the first geological survey of the state in 1864, and published the first book on the geology of Kansas. He lectured extensively, and was department chair at the Kansas State Agricultural College (KSAC, now Kansas State University).

He also avidly collected fossils, and was one of the first to systematically explore the Permian and Mesozoic biota in the geologic formations of Kansas and the American West, including the Niobrara Chalk, the Morrison Formation, and the Dakota Sandstone. While not formally trained in paleontology, he kept extensive and accurate field notes and sent most of his fossils East to be described by some of the most noted paleontologists of his time, including the rivals Othniel Charles Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope.

His discoveries included at least 80 new species of extinct animals and plants,[1] and are found in the collections of some of the most prestigious U.S. institutions of natural history, including the Smithsonian and Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History. One of his most notable finds is the holotype of the first recognized "bird with teeth", Ichthyornis.[2][3][4] While working for Marsh, he also discovered the type species of the sauropod dinosaur Diplodocus,[5] and the theropod dinosaur Allosaurus, with his protégé Samuel Wendell Williston.[6][7]

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Transcription

Welcome to the Endless Knot! Today we’re digging up the word ‘fossil’. The word ‘fossil’ comes from a Proto-Indo-European root that means “to dig or pierce”, and makes its way to English through a 16th c. French word derived from the Latin verb fodio “to dig”. The word ‘fossil’ originally referred to a rock or mineral dug out of the ground, and appears in English at the beginning of the 17th century. The expression ‘fossil fuel’ preserves this older sense (no, it’s not because it’s made out of dinosaurs!). It was not until the 18th c., or a little earlier for the adjective form, that fossil gained its more restricted, but now most common, sense of ‘the petrified remains of ancient living organisms’. And these two different but related senses tell us something about the scientific investigations of the 18th and 19th centuries. But more on that in a minute. Though the scientific study of fossils didn’t really kick off until the 18th century, people may have actually noticed them much earlier. Some scholars have argued that fossil remains of prehistoric megafauna may have inspired Greek myths about large monsters and heroes of giant stature. For instance, finding mammoth tusks in an area that hadn’t even heard about elephants yet may have led to stories of the gigantic Caledonian Boar; and the Greek historian Herodotus reports that the Delphic Oracle told the Spartans to find the bones of the hero Orestes, and when they dug up some huge bones near their border, they figured they’d found him and re-buried the ‘skeleton’ in a lavish tomb. According to one scholar, the Spartans’ success with Orestes kicked off a pan-Hellenic ‘bone rush’, with every city wanting its very own monster bones, much like the bone rush of the 19th century. But more on that later, too. There are many Classical intrusions into this story; for instance, in the history of the complicated overlap between geology and palaeontology. One of the major debates in 18th and 19th century geology was between the Neptunists and the Plutonists. You see people noticed that rocks were arranged in layers, which came to be known as ‘strata’, from the Latin for ‘bed coverings’ or ‘paved road’, and also that fossils were contained in these strata; and most confusingly, there were fossils of sea creatures on mountaintops. So two schools of thought arose to explain this: Neptunists, named after the Roman god of the sea, said that the world was originally covered by a muddy ocean, and rocks were formed as the water receded or dried up, leaving layers of sediment; and since then, the earth had been basically unchanging. Plutonists, named after the Roman god of the underworld, pointed out that fossils weren’t found in all strata, and maintained that new rocks were formed by a continuing process of volcanoes (named after the Roman blacksmith god Vulcan) and earthquakes, though this left open the question of fossilised shells on mountain tops. Meanwhile, the 18th century was also the Age of Reason and the Enlightenment. Classical harmony and symmetry were the aesthetics of the day, and this way of thinking governed the sciences as well. The great taxonomist Carl Linnaeus set about classifying all living things, with the belief that God had created a perfect and unchanging order, and all humans had to do was categorize and name it; he developed the binomial naming system that we still use today, made up of two Latin names to identify the ‘genus’ (Latin for ‘clan or family’) and ‘species’ (Latin for ‘type or appearance’). But toward the end of that century and into the next, as the unruly passions of romanticism, which was really into the chaos of nature, began to challenge the neo-classical order, the ordered view of the natural world was about to shatter as well. Continuing in Linnaeus’s task of classifying animals was Georges Cuvier, who practically wrote the book on comparative anatomy. It was said that he could reconstruct the shape of an entire animal from a single bone through the principle of the correlation of parts: the sharp tooth of a carnivore implied a particular jaw shape, which implied a particular skull shape, and so forth. This was demonstrated when American President Thomas Jefferson, a fossil fanatic, started a campaign of sending over to Europe specimens of animals of unusual size to counter French naturalist the Comte de Buffon who claimed American animals were small and degenerate compared to European ones, and in doing so inadvertently kicked off American palaeontology. Cuvier, starting with a single tooth that the Americans had sent, was the first to formally describe and name the American mastodon—and I bet you didn’t expect that word to mean “nipple tooth” from the Greek for “breast” and “tooth”, because of the titillating shape of the teeth! They were initially confused with mammoths until Cuvier’s work established them as a distinct but related species. The name ‘mammoth’, by the way, comes through Russian, ultimately from a Finno-Ugric root meaning “earth-horn” because, mammoth remains having been found in the ground, they were believed to have been a burrowing animal like a mole. And as a side note about Thomas Jefferson, the word ‘mammoth’ was first used as an adjective meaning “huge” to describe not an animal of unusual size, but a cheese wheel of unusual size that was presented to that President. But getting back to Cuvier, he also studied the strata and noticed that certain fossils were only found in certain layers and then disappeared, and this led him to be one of the first to really suggest the idea of extinction. He proposed the idea of catastrophism, which fit in with the neptunism of the geologists: that there were a series of floods that periodically caused certain species to go extinct, which were then, somehow, replaced by new ones. Cuvier’s findings in France fit with those of an Englishman, William Smith, who is so important to the study of strata that he is sometimes credited with coining the term ‘stratigraphy’ (the first recorded instance of the word refers to his work) and was nicknamed William ‘Strata’ Smith. Smith was a surveyor working for a coal company and realised he could work out the relative ages of strata by the type of fossils they contained, and after much study produced a geological map of Britain showing all the different strata, a map which was sadly immediately plagiarised. Another proponent of the flood theory was an eccentric theologian cum geologist and palaeontologist William Buckland, who is also significant as the first to formally describe a dinosaur, which he called megalosaurus, from its fossil remains. The name megalosaurus is from Greek meaning “big lizard”, and perhaps unfortunately replaced the Latin name originally given to the fossilized end of a femur which was the first of its bones to be found: “scrotum humanum” because of its resemblance to... well.... As for the eccentric Buckland himself, he preferred to do his field work while wearing his academic robes, and having pioneered the study of coprolites, fossilized faeces, he had a table made with inlaid specimens—and only told his guests what it was made out of after they’d eaten off it. He also had odd tastes in food, being obsessed with trying many unusual animals, such as sea slugs, crocodile, and bluebottle flies, and was apparently fond of toasted mice. He was also rumoured to have eaten the mummified heart of Louis XIV, and he was purported to have properly identified a dark stain on the floor of a cathedral, which was thought to be the blood of a martyr, as actually bat urine--by tasting it! But all of this eccentricity didn’t go to waste, as he was known for using humour and buffoonery in his lectures at Oxford University to keep his students interested and entertained. Shocking! And Buckland is particularly important to this story because of one of those students: Charles Lyell. Lyell, disagreeing with his wacky teacher Buckland and the other neptunists and catastrophists, instead turned to the work of a man who died the year Lyell was born. This farmer-turned-geologist, the Scotsman James Hutton, who held to the plutonist school, proposed the theory of uniformitarianism, that the gradual and ongoing processes of erosion and sedimentation, along with ongoing vulcanism, could account for the geological evidence, and that these processes must have been happening in the same way for a very long time, with no need for the great catastrophes of floods. He even applied this gradualistic notion to living things, with a kind of proto-theory of evolution through natural selection. But unfortunately Hutton was such a bad writer that his ideas came close to going completely unnoticed. Hutton was part of the so-called Scottish Enlightenment, and as such palled around with other Scottish notables of the day, and along with moral philosopher Adam Smith and chemist Joseph Black formed a dining club called the Oyster Club, soon to be joined by mathematician John Playfair. Playfair, realising that Hutton’s writings needed to be reworked, wrote a summary explaining Hutton’s uniformitarianism, and it’s through this that Lyell got onto the idea. Lyell wrote his own book promoting and popularising the idea, also providing the additional evidence of fossils in strata that ran under volcanic mountains, which demonstrated the extreme age and slow pace of everything, and this book made a big impact on Lyell’s friend, Charles Darwin, who went on to formulate his own idea of evolution through natural selection, seemingly unaware of Hutton’s earlier musings. So Darwin’s theory only further inflamed the bone rush going on amongst the fossil hunters, for further proof of evolution and extinction, and the search for the so-called missing links between one species and another–such as proof of the theory that birds were descended from dinosaurs. American bone-hunter Othniel Charles Marsh supported that theory with his study of the first fossil specimen of a toothed bird Ichthyornis (from the Greek meaning “fish bird”). Marsh himself hadn’t uncovered the fossil, which was actually found by geologist Benjamin Franklin Mudge, who sent the fossil to Marsh for scientific classification. Mudge had originally had an arrangement to send fossil finds to Edward Drinker Cope, Marsh’s hated rival in what has become known as the Bone Wars, but Marsh convinced Mudge to send the Ichthyornis fossil his way, so Marsh beat Cope out as the classifier of this crucial fossil. The Bone Wars was the intense and often underhanded professional and personal competition between Marsh and Cope, two of the most important palaeontologists of the 19th century. Not only did they attack each other in print, but they poached each other’s quarries, descending to bribery, theft, and even dynamiting fossils to keep them from falling into the other’s hands, and at the end of it all both were left broken and financially ruined men. Though often destructive, their competition to discover the most species led to the classification of some of the most iconic dinosaurs: Triceratops, Allosaurus, Diplodocus, and Stegosaurus. Sometimes their haste to one up each other led to mistakes like misidentifying as new animals fossils of species that had already been discovered, as in the famous case of the Brontosaurus. Marsh had discovered and named the Brontosaurus (from the Greek meaning “thunder-lizard”), but it was later decided that the fossil find was really a specimen of the previously discovered Apatosaurus, so officially the name Brontosaurus was dropped, except in the popular imagination where it persisted as one of the most famous dinosaur species. But recently, in early 2015, a re-examination of the fossil has shown that there actually were enough differences to classify Brontosaurus as a separate species again. I’m sure Marsh would have been just as pleased as the 8-year old dinosaur lover in all of us! Of course fossil evidence for the evolution of humans from earlier primates was also sought and found too, including such species as the Java Man (now classified as Homo erectus from Latin meaning “upright person”) and Neanderthal (so called because it was first discovered in the Neander valley near Düsseldorf). And the principles of stratigraphy became a central precept of the study of the physical remains of human activity, such as artifacts or structures--in other words archaeology. One interesting recent archaeological discovery is the oldest known remains of a bed, made by early humans in the Sibudu cave in what is now South Africa some 77,000 years ago. This ‘mattress’ was made out of layers of sedges which have insecticidal properties to keep the pests away, with a layer of leaves on top, and was big enough for a whole family to sleep on, giving us clues to the social arrangements and behaviours of early humans. What’s more, it appears to have been used over a period of 39,000 years, being periodically burned and then re-layered with fresh sedges and leaves, so the bed itself is made up of strata (or “bed coverings” in Latin, remember) of fossilized plants accumulated over thousands of years. Which is particularly appropriate, since the word “bed” comes from the same Proto-Indo-European root that gives us fossil, only through the Germanic branch of languages instead of Latin. It’s a matter of some speculation why a word that meant ‘to dig’ came to mean a place for sleeping, but perhaps it had to do with the notion of a hollow dug out of the ground, like a den, giving us a linguistic clue to sleeping arrangements of the past. In Old English, the word “bed” could refer to a place to sleep, as well as a garden bed, where you might dig. And by the beginning of the 17th century, the word bed could refer to a layer or stratum, like a geological bed, a lake bed, or a bone bed, containing fossils. So this video is a bit like uncovering the strata of history and etymology, and like Cuvier puzzling out the shape of an entire organism starting from one small bone, we’ve puzzled out this whole story from one word’s history. And like the fossil mattress, the etymology of “bed” gives us a glimpse of the deep and distant past. Can you dig it? Thanks for watching! If you’ve enjoyed these etymological explorations and cultural connections, please subscribe to this channel to help me make more videos; you can also sign up for email notifications of new videos in the description below. Leave a comment or question, or tweet @Alliterative; you can also read more of my thoughts on my blog at alliterative.net

Biography

Early life

Mudge was born in Orrington, Maine[8] to James and Ruth Mudge on August 11, 1817, and moved with his family to Lynn, Massachusetts, in 1818. He helped support three older brothers enrolled in the Methodist Episcopal Conference by working as a shoemaker for 6 years, before attending Wesleyan University. Unlike his brothers who all became clergy, Benjamin studied science and the classics before graduating in 1840. He acquired his Master of Arts several years later from the same institution, and passed the bar and began practicing as a lawyer in 1842. On September 16, 1842, he married Mary E. Beckford;[9] he continued his practice, and was elected mayor of Lynn in 1852 on a temperance platform.[10][11]

In 1859 he moved to Cloverport, Kentucky, where he briefly worked as a chemist at Breckinridge Coal and Oil Company, a local oil refinery.[1][10]

Educator and state geologist

With the start of the American Civil War in 1861, Mudge moved to Quindaro (now part of Kansas City[12]) where he took a job teaching public school in Kansas City. In Quindaro, Mudge and his family operated a waystation of the Underground Railroad, aiding slaves fleeing from Missouri,[13]

He lectured around the state, and in 1864 delivered a series on "Scientific and Economical Geology" to the legislature in Topeka while the bill to establish the first state geological survey was being debated in the House. The Topeka Tribune wrote:[14]

The lectures of Hon. B. F. Mudge are exciting considerable interest, among the members of the legislature, and the people of Topeka. He has spoken three times in Representative Hall, to large audiences whose close attention attests how deeply they are interested in his lectures

After Watson Foster withdrew due to opposition, and George C. Swallow was accused of disloyalty, Mudge was appointed as the stage geologist and the director of the first Kansas Geological Survey by Governor Thomas Carney. He reluctantly accepted, writing the following note at the bottom of the Senate nomination: "This petition was started without my knowledge or consent. I am in favor of the appointment of Prof. W. Foster".[15]

Mudge was responsible for surveying 212,000 km2 (82,000 sq mi) of mineral and soil resources by the end of the year, with a budget of US$3,500 and a staff of five. In the 1860s, there were no railroads and very few towns west of Topeka, and the area had seen a resurgence of "Indian trouble". Mudge moved to Manhattan, Kansas, and despite not being able to visit all the areas of the state, he submitted Geology of Kansas by the November 30, 1864, deadline, the first book on the geology of Kansas. The document covered stratigraphy but primarily focused on exploitable economic resources, particularly coal and salt. Mudge resigned at the end of his term, but the position was renewed and Swallow was appointed to head the 1865 survey with a larger budget and staff, and completed a more extensive survey. Due to funding problems, both the 1864 and 1865 reports were not published until 1866.[11][16] After the two surveys, the Kansas Geologic Survey went into abeyance until 1895, when it was permanently established at the University of Kansas.[17]

After his term as state geologist, Mudge became the chair of Natural Sciences at the Kansas State Agricultural College (KSAC, now Kansas State University) and started teaching in 1865. He left KSAC in 1873 after a dispute with the administration.[18] over back pay.[17]

First discoveries

Mudge began geological and paleontological field expeditions in 1865, while still employed at KSAC. He collected footprints near Junction City in 1865, and invertebrates and Late Cretaceous deciduous leaves near Ellsworth in 1866, and more plants and a saurian in 1869 from the Republican River near the northern state line. His expedition in 1870 was near Fort Wallace and saw the discovery of numerous plesiosaurs and fish from the Saurodontidae family. 1871 saw plants, molluscs, vertebrates, and the bird Hesperornis from western Kansas. In 1872 more vertebrates and plants were discovered in Smith County, while in 1873 new species were discovered in Trego and Ellis Counties, and plesiosaurs were found in 1874 in Jewell and Gove Counties.[19]

While he maintained a small collection as KSAC, the majority of his finds were sent to Eastern paleontologists to be described. He initially corresponded in this fashion with Fielding Bradford Meek at the Smithsonian (primarily concerning molluscs), Leo Lesquereux (plants), Edward Drinker Cope at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia (vertebrates), Othniel Charles Marsh at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale, Louis Agassiz at Harvard, and James Dwight Dana at Yale. In turn, Cope visited Mudge in 1871, and Cope, Marsh, and Lesquerenx all visited in 1872. Cope and Lesquerenx published most of Mudge's discoveries from this period.

Reconstruction of Ichthyornis

Mudge discovered Ichthyornis in 1872. While he initially planned to ship the specimen to Cope, he heard of Othniel Charles Marsh's interest and sent it instead to his former acquaintance from Connecticut. Marsh first described the bird in 1872,[2] but misidentified the toothed jaw as belonging to a type of lizard.[3] Marsh associated the jaw with the avian postcranial elements and published the new data the next year.[4] An analysis in 1952 concluded the jaw actually belonged to a mosasaur,[20] but a reevaluation in 1967 and new specimens confirmed Marsh's assessment.

This was the first bird described with teeth; Richard Owen's original description of the London Specimen of Archaeopteryx in 1861 did not recognize its associated teeth, and assumed the bird had a beak.[21] This was also the start of Mudge's association with Marsh, as the rivalry between Cope and Marsh (known as the "Bone Wars") heated up.

Fossils for Marsh

After his dismissal from KSAC in 1874, Mudge wrote to Marsh:

When you were here, you stated that you should like to employ one or more young men to collect fossils in western Kansas. As perhaps you may have learned, I have been summarily discharged (with two other professors) from this college. This has been done by an incompetent, conceited clergyman, who is acting as president.

— February 3, 1874 letter in the Yale Archives[22]

Marsh hired Mudge to lead fossil hunting expeditions. He was assisted on his 1874 expedition by Samuel Wendell Williston, who started leading his own expeditions in 1877. Mudge primarily focused on the Kansas Chalk from 1874 to 1876, but from 1876 to 1879 he expanded into Colorado discovering some of the first Jurassic dinosaurs in the American West.[19] According to Blackmar, "in one year he shipped over three tons of fossils, etc., to New Haven" [10]

A modern depiction of Allosaurus.
A modern depiction of Diplodocus

Marsh's rival Cope in turn had Oramel Lucas and Charles Hazelius Sternberg seeking out new finds. In 1877, Cope's team was making remarkable finds at Como Bluff, Wyoming near Cañon City, Colorado, and Marsh sent Mudge to establish a quarry near the location. While the quarry was eventually abandoned because the bones were too fragile to transport, Mudge and Williston discovered the holotype specimens of Allosaurus (A. fragilis) and Diplodocus (D. longus) in 1877 before the quarry was closed, and both species were named by Marsh, the former in 1877 and the latter in 1878.[5][6][7]

Legacy

As long as science has a name and place in the great central plains of the North American continent, Prof. Mudge will not be forgotten as a scientific explorer and discoverer

— John D. Parker, "Memorial of Prof. Benjamin F. Mudge"[1]

With John D. Parker of Lincoln College (now Washburn University), Mudge founded the Kansas Natural History Society in 1867 (which became the Kansas Academy of Science in 1871). He was elected its first president, and published many of his scientific papers in its Transactions.,[17] and he became a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1878.[10] He died outside his home of a "stroke of apoplexy" on November 21, 1879, and was buried two days later on Cemetery Hill.[1]

Xiphactinus, from the late Cretaceous Niobraran Sea of Kansas

Three species were named in his honor. Cope named a mosasaur species Liodon mudgei in 1871;[23] though it is now considered to be a specimen of Platecarpus tympaniticus, Liodon remains as a junior synonym.[24] The jaw of the Ichthyornis that Marsh originally believed belonged to a saurian was named Colonosaurus mudgei.[3] Lesquerenx also a named a species of oak Quercus mudgeii in 1872. Mudge himself named the Fort Hays member of the Niobrara Formation in 1876.

During his career, he discovered specimens of mosasaurs and plesiosaurs; late Cretaceous leaves; various saurian and pythonomorphan reptiles; many genera of fish including Xiphactinus, Ichthyodectes, Erisichthe, Protosphyraena, and Saurocephalus; molluscs; and trace fossils including gastroliths and Pennsylvanian footprints.[19] In addition to more than 80 species, his finds are in the collections of major museums, including more than 300 specimens in the collection of the Peabody Museum at Yale.[19]

Beliefs and personality

Mudge was a member of temperance organizations, and during his tenure as mayor of Lynn closed many saloons.[1] In Kentucky and later in abolitionist Kansas, was known for opposition to slavery. Parker notes that during the Civil War:[1]

Some runaway slaves from Missouri came to Prof. Mudge for work and protection. Their masters offered a large reward for their recovery, and his home and life were threatened in a midnight attack. He would not yield to threats, however, but protected the refugees, and saved them from being dragged back into slavery.

He had a keen interest in natural history. His protégé Williston wrote in 1898:[22]

The first to make any systematic collections of fossils from the Cretaceous of Kansas was the late Prof. B. F. Mudge, at that time professor of geology in the Kansas Agricultural College. I was a student at that time under him at this college, and well remember the ardent enthusiasm that he evinced in the discoveries he made.

Mudge had a systematic approach, and kept excellent records of both the locality of his discoveries and the actual specimens. From Dale Russell's 1967 Systematics and Morphology of American Mosasaurs:[25]

... special mention is due to Prof. B. F. Mudge, who collected for Marsh during the summers of 1874–1876. The industry and thoroughness with which he work [sic] the Niobrara Chalk, the excellence and number of his specimens, and the relative accuracy and completeness of his field journal were outstanding for his time

Publications

Mudge was not a prolific publisher of scientific papers. According to the Kansas Geological Survey Online Bibliography of Geology,[26] his entire output was contained in twenty-two publications, and most were very short.

  • Mudge, B. F. (1866). "First annual report on the geology of Kansas for 1864". Kansas Geological Survey: 56 p. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • Mudge, B. F. (1866). "Discovery of fossil footmarks in the Liassic (?) formation in Kansas". American Journal of Science. Series 2. 41 (122): 174–176. Bibcode:1866AmJS...41..174M. doi:10.2475/ajs.s2-41.122.174. S2CID 131019537.
  • Mudge, B. F. (1873). "Footprints in the middle coal measures". American Journal of Science. Series 3. 6: 228.
  • Mudge, B. F. (1873). "Geology of the Arkansas". Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Transactions of 1872, First Annual Report: 408–410. (Reprinted in 1895 as Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 1: pp. 50–53.)
  • Mudge, B. F. (1873). "Red sandstone of central Kansas". Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Transactions of 1872, First Annual Report: 394–396. (Reprinted in 1895 as Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 1: pp. 37–39. doi:10.2307/3623513)
  • Mudge, B. F. (1874). "The geology of Kansas". Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Third Annual Report: 102–107. (Excerpts from Mudge, 1866.)
  • Mudge, B. F. (1874). "Recent discoveries of fossil footprints in Kansas". Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Third Annual Report: 7–9. (Reprinted in 1896 as Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 2: pp. 71–74. doi:10.2307/3623467)
  • Mudge, B. F. (1875). "Pliocene Tertiary of western Kansas". Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Third Annual Report: 351–353. (Reprinted in 1896 as Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 3: pp. 113–117. doi:10.2307/3623527)
  • Mudge, B. F. (1875). "Geology of Kansas". Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Fourth Annual Report: 107–127.
  • Mudge, B. F. (1875). "Rare forms of fish in Kansas". Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Third Annual Report: 356. (Reprinted in 1896 as Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 3: pp. 121–122.)
  • Mudge, B. F. (1875). "A geological survey of Kansas". Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Third Annual Report: 342–344. (Reprinted in 1896 as Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 3: pp. 101–102.)
  • Mudge, B. F. (1875). "On the mineral resources of Kansas". Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Third Annual Report: 102–107.
  • Mudge, B. F. (1876). "Notes on the Tertiary and Cretaceous periods of Kansas". U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (F.V. Hayden), Bulletin. 2 (3): 211–221.
  • Mudge, B. F. (1877). "Annual report of the committee on geology for the year ending November 1, 1876". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. Kansas Academy of Science. 5: 4–5. doi:10.2307/3623490. JSTOR 3623490. (Reprinted in 1906 as 5: pp. 4–5.)
  • Mudge, B. F. (1877). "Bison latifrons in Kansas". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. 5: 9–10. doi:10.2307/3623492. JSTOR 3623492. (Reprinted in 1906 as p. 10.)
  • Mudge, B. F. (1877). "Notes on the Tertiary and Cretaceous periods of Kansas". U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (F.V. Hayden), Annual Report. In, Hayden, F.V.; U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, Embracing Colorado and Parts of Adjacent Territories; Being a Report of Progress of the Exploration for the Year 1875 (9): 277–294.
  • Mudge, B. F. (1878). "Geology of Kansas". Kansas State Board of Agriculture, First Biennial Report: 46–88.
  • Mudge, B. F. (1878). "Fossil leaves in Kansas". Western Review of Science and Industry. 1: 654–656.
  • Mudge, B. F. (1879). "The new sink hole in Meade Co., Kans". Kansas City Review of Science and Industry. 3: 152–153.
  • Mudge, B. F. (1879). "Are birds derived from dinosaurs?". Kansas City Review of Science and Industry. 3: 224–226.
  • Mudge, B. F. (1881). "List of minerals found in Kansas". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. Kansas Academy of Science. 7: 27–29. doi:10.2307/3623575. JSTOR 3623575.
  • Mudge, B. F. (1881). "Metamorphic deposit in Woodson County". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. 7: 12–13. doi:10.2307/3623571. JSTOR 3623571. (Reprinted in 1906 as pp. 11–13.)

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b c d e f Parker, 1881.
  2. ^ a b Marsh, 1872, Notice of a new and remarkable fossil bird.
  3. ^ a b c Marsh, 1872, Notice of a new reptile.
  4. ^ a b Marsh, 1873.
  5. ^ a b Marsh, 1878.
  6. ^ a b Marsh, 1877.
  7. ^ a b A Short History of Dinosaur Collecting.
  8. ^ Spelled "Orrinton" in Everhart 2005 and "Orriton" in Morgan 1911.
  9. ^ Willard, J. T. (1903). "Mrs. Mary E. Mudge". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. 19: 439–440. ISSN 0022-8443. JSTOR 3624232.
  10. ^ a b c d Blackmar 1912, p. 331
  11. ^ a b Morgan 1911, ch. 23.
  12. ^ Welcome to Quindaro, on the Underground Railroad 2000
  13. ^ Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2015-03-26). The Underground Railroad: An Encyclopedia of People, Places, and Operations. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-45415-1.
  14. ^ Buchanan 1989, ch. 2. quotes p. 2 of the January 26, 1864 Topeka Tribune
  15. ^ Buchanan 1989, ch. 2. quotes the Senate petition in the Carney Collection of the Kansas State Historical Society.
  16. ^ Buchanan 1989, ch. 2 and 3.
  17. ^ a b c Aber 2007
  18. ^ Martin, 1994, letter on p. 138. Also available here
  19. ^ a b c d Everhart 2005.
  20. ^ Gregory, 1952
  21. ^ Owen, 1863.
  22. ^ a b Quoted in Everhart 2005.
  23. ^ Cope, 1871.
  24. ^ Nicholls, 1988
  25. ^ Everhart 2005, quoting p. 5 of Dale Russell's 1967 book Systematics and Morphology of American Mosasaurs.
  26. ^ KGS Online Bibliography of Geology.

References

Political offices
Preceded by Mayor of Lynn, Massachusetts
June 16, 1852
to
April 4, 1853 		Succeeded by
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