Forgetting

Forgetting

The garden of oblivion, illustration for by Ephraim Moses Lilr the l
Symptoms	Difficulty in remembering recent events, problems with language, disorientation, mood swings
Complications	Dementia

Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an individual's short or long-term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage. Problems with remembering, learning and retaining new information are a few of the most common complaints of older adults.^[1] Studies show that retention improves with increased rehearsal. This improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to transfer information into long-term memory.^[2]

Forgetting curves (amount remembered as a function of time since an event was first experienced) have been extensively analyzed. The most recent evidence suggests that a power function provides the closest mathematical fit to the forgetting function.^[3]

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It was midnight when Bernice got off work. She was exhausted after a long and terrible day, and just wanted to get home to a hot bath. She was driving down the street, flipping through radio stations, when she pulled up to a stop sign, and saw something weird. A shadowy figure ran up to an idling fruit truck, pushed the delivery man down, grabbed a crate of bananas, and ran off around the corner. Bernice was pretty shaken up, but she made sure the driver was okay, and then called the police, describing the thief as a pale, lanky man, wearing a dark jacket and a baseball cap. She gave the cops her information, and then she went home. A couple days later the police asked her to come down to the station to identify a potential thief--a guy who more or less matched her description, and was found eating a banana early that morning, near the scene of the crime. Although the guy professed innocence, Bernice said it was him, and they locked him up. But at the trial, the defense called a memory expert to the stand, and soon after that, the suspect walked. Today’s lesson may not quite make you an expert worthy of the witness stand, but by the time we’re done, you’ll understand a lot more about how we retrieve memories we think we’ve stored, and why the accused banana thief was set free. [INTRO] We’re all constantly retrieving memories throughout the day-- you’re remembering where you parked your car, or if you fed the cat, or called your mom ‘cause it’s her birthday. You’ll remember from last week that while our implicit memories--like how to talk and ride a bike--are dealt with on a mostly automatic and non-conscious level, our explicit memories--the chronicles of our personal experiences and general knowledge -- often require conscious, effortful work. Bernice had to notice, encode, store, and later consciously retrieve details about the crime she witnessed--what color was the guy’s jacket, what did he look like, what did he steal, and where did he run? It takes a lot of work to retrieve memories from long-term storage, and the truth is, a lot can go wrong along the way. In order to understand all of the many fascinating ways you forget things, we need to talk more about how we remember. Our memories are not like books in the library of your mind. You don’t just pluck a neatly-packaged memory -- about where you left your phone or the hair color of a fruit thief. Instead your memories are more like the spider webs in the dank catacombs of your mind--a series of interconnected associations that link all sorts of diverse things, as bits of information get stuck to other bits of information. Like, maybe Bernice remembers that the night of the crime was chilly with a full moon, and that Beyonce was on the radio, and the fruit truck had plates from California, which is where her grandfather lives. All those bits of information in the web of memory--the weather, the song, the plates--can serve as retrieval cues, kind of like a trail of breadcrumbs leading back to a particular memory. The more retrieval cues you inadvertently, or intentionally, build along the way, the better you can backtrack and find the memory you’re looking for. This way of activating associations non-consciously is called priming, sometimes called “memoryless memory”. It’s how “invisible memories” that you didn’t know you had can awaken old associations. Priming is how you often jog your memory. This kind of recall is sometimes referred to as context-dependent memory. Say you’re reading in bed, and you want to underline a quote, but you don’t have a pen. You get up and go into the other room to find your special light-up Hello Kitty pen, but you get distracted and suddenly you find yourself in the kitchen; you’re like “Why? Why, mind? Why am I in the kitchen? What is here? Why am- there was a rea- and I don’t know but I’m here now and agh!” It’s only when you retrace your steps and return to bed, to the initial context where you read that quote and encoded that first thought of wanting that pen, that the memory comes back. And then you’re like ‘oh, I need to go get the pen. Ugh’ If some memories are context-dependent, others are state-dependent, and also mood-congruent. This just means that our states and our emotions can also serve as retrieval cues. If I had a throbbing headache and a super bad day, I’m more likely to start recalling bad memories, because I’m priming negative associations. But of course if I’m relaxed and jolly, I’m prone to remember happy times, which are prolonging my good mood. Another funny memory-retrieval quirk speaks not to our location or emotions, but to the order in which we receive new information. So, say you make a grocery list in the morning, but a few hours later, you’re at the store, you realize you left it at home. You’d be more likely to recall the first items on the list--bananas and bread--and the last items--pickles and cheese--than anything in the middle. This is known as the serial position effect. This might be because the early words benefitted from what’s known as the primacy effect, and made it into your long-term memory because they were rehearsed more. Meanwhile, the last words lingered in the working memory through the recency effect. But those poor middle words, they didn’t benefit from either effect and therefore escaped your brain, which is why you now have no toilet paper, dog food, toothpaste, or cookies. Who forgets cookies? But even with all these tricks and associations, things still go wrong--memory can fail or become distorted, and of course we forget things. Forgetfulness can be as minor as those frustrating moments where you’re like ‘Ah, it’s on the tip of my tongue. It’s the guy, the guy’s got hair, and a face, and, like, shoulders.’ Or as major as Clive Wearing, whose neurological damage made it impossible for him to recall the past or create new memories. Of course, we all forget things, and typically we do it in one of three different ways: We fail to encode it, we fail to retrieve it, or we experience what psychologists call storage decay. Sometimes forgetting something just means it never really got through your encoding process in the first place. I mean, think of all the stuff that’s going around you at any given moment. We only actually notice a fraction of what we sense, and we can only consciously hold so many bits of information in our minds at any given time, so what we fail to notice, we tend to not encode, and thus don't remember. Bernice noticed a dark jacket, Beyonce, and bananas, but she didn’t encode much about the driver, or the color of the thief’s shoes. Then again, even memories that have been encoded are still vulnerable to storage decay, or natural forgetting over time. Interestingly, even though we can forget things pretty quickly, the amount of data that we forget can actually levels off after a while. This means that Bernice would have forgotten about half of what she first noticed from the crime scene a couple days later, but what she still remembered, she’d likely hang on to, because the rate at which we forget tends to plateau. A lot of times forgetting doesn’t mean our memory just faded to black, it means we can’t call it up on demand because of retrieval failure. We all know the common tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon where you feel like you know the name of that weird-looking hard-backed animal that rolls up into ball. It’s kind of cute and weird and I think they get leprosy or something…what is it?! This is where retrieval cues can come in handy. If I say is starts with the letter A, you may suddenly unlock the information--Armadillo! Sometimes these retrieval problems stem from interference from other memories getting in the way, essentially cluttering the brain. Sometimes, old stuff that you’ve learned keeps you from recalling new stuff -- like, if you change one of your passwords, but keep recalling your old one every time you try to log in. That’s called proactive, or forward-acting, interference. The flip side is retroactive, or backward-acting, interference, which happens when new learning gets in the way of recalling old information, like if you start studying Spanish, it may interfere with the French that you’ve already learned. There’s a lot of reconstruction and inferring involved when you try to flesh out a memory, and every time you replay it in your mind, or relate it to a friend, it changes, just a little. So in a way, we’re all sort of perpetually re-writing our pasts. While this is an inevitable part of human nature, it can prove dangerous at times. Misleading information can get incorporated into a memory, and twist the truth - and yes there is an effect for this; it’s called the misinformation effect. American psychologist and memory expert Elizabeth Loftus has spent decades showing how eyewitnesses inadvertently tweak and reconstruct their memories after accidents or crimes. In one experiment, two groups watched a film of a car accident. Those asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other estimated much higher speeds than those who were asked about the cars hitting each other. Smash is the leading word that essentially altered the witnesses’ memories -- so much so that a week later, when both groups were asked if they saw any broken glass, those who heard the word smash were twice as likely to report seeing bits of glass, when in fact, the original film didn’t show any. In Bernice’s case, chances are her memory of the robbery would be altered if the prosecution said the thief assaulted, rather than pushed the driver. This sort of interfering or misleading information may also manifest itself as source misattribution, like when we forget or misrecall the source of a memory. In the case of Bernice, when she saw the suspect in the courtroom, she thought she recognized him from the night of the crime, when in reality, he’d just served her coffee earlier that day. But her memory of the event had probably already been tweaked several times before she even made it into the courtroom. Like she re-lived the tale multiple times, in her own mind or when she told other people about it, and every time she introduced errors, filling in memory gaps with reasonable guesses. Not only that, but we know Bernice was already tired and stressed when she witnessed the event, and we know our emotions can influence both what we remember and what we forget. Because memory is both a reconstruction and a reproduction of past events, we can’t ever really be sure if a memory is real just because it feels real. Elizabeth Loftus knows this. She’s frequently called in to testify against the accuracy of eyewitnesses. In fact, of all the U.S. prisoners who have been exonerated based on DNA evidence presented by Innocence Project, a non-profit legal group, 75 percent of them were convicted by mistaken eyewitnesses. That is a lot of innocent people. Bernice meant well of course, she’s an honest enough lady, but all these factors--the emotion, the retelling, the suggestions of outside sources-- combined with the darkness, the quick glimpse, the passing of time, maybe even the Beyonce, ended up leading to a mistake in the thief’s identification. Turns out the human memory is actually a very fragile thing. We’re all largely the product of the stories that we tell ourselves. If you haven’t forgotten already, today you learned about how our memories are stored in webs of association, aided by retrieval cues and priming, and influenced by context and mood. You also learned how we forget information, how our memories are susceptible to interference and misinformation, and why eyewitnesses are often not as reliable as you might think. Thanks for watching, especially to all of our Subbable subscribers, who make this whole channel possible. To learn how you can keep these lessons coming while earning awesome perks, just go to subbable.com. This episode was written by Kathleen Yale, edited by Blake de Pastino, and our consultant is Dr. Ranjit Bhagwat. Our director and editor is Nicholas Jenkins, the script supervisor is Michael Aranda, who’s also our sound designer, and the graphics team is Thought Café.

Overview

Failing to retrieve an event does not mean that this specific event has been forever forgotten. Research has shown that there are a few health behaviors that to some extent can prevent forgetting from happening so often.^[4] One of the simplest ways to keep the brain healthy and prevent forgetting is to stay active and exercise. Staying active is important because overall it keeps the body healthy. When the body is healthy the brain is healthy and less inflamed as well.^[4] Older adults who were more active were found to have had less episodes of forgetting compared to those older adults who were less active. A healthy diet can also contribute to a healthier brain and aging process which in turn results in less frequent forgetting.^[4]

History

One of the first to study the mechanisms of forgetting was the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885). Using himself as the sole subject in his experiment, he memorized lists of three letter nonsense syllable words—two consonants and one vowel in the middle. He then measured his own capacity to relearn a given list of words after a variety of given time period. He found that forgetting occurs in a systematic manner, beginning rapidly and then leveling off.^[5] Although his methods were primitive, his basic premises have held true today and have been reaffirmed by more methodologically sound methods.^[6] The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve is the name of his results which he plotted out and made 2 conclusions. The first being that much of what we forget is lost soon after it is originally learned. The second being that the amount of forgetting eventually levels off.^[7]

Around the same time Ebbinghaus developed the forgetting curve, psychologist Sigmund Freud theorized that people intentionally forgot things in order to push bad thoughts and feelings deep into their unconscious, a process he called "repression".^[8] There is debate as to whether (or how often) memory repression really occurs^[9] and mainstream psychology holds that true memory repression occurs only very rarely.^[10]

One process model for memory was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in the 1960s as a way to explain the operation of memory. This modal model of memory, also known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, suggests there are three types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.^[11] Each type of memory is separate in its capacity and duration. In the modal model, how quickly information is forgotten is related to the type of memory where that information is stored. Information in the first stage, sensory memory, is forgotten after only a few seconds. In the second stage, short-term memory, information is forgotten after about 20 years. While information in long-term memory can be remembered for minutes or even decades, it may be forgotten when the retrieval processes for that information fail.^[5]

Concerning unwanted memories, modern terminology divides motivated forgetting into unconscious repression (which is disputed) and conscious thought suppression.

Measurements

Forgetting can be measured in different ways all of which are based on recall:

Recall

For this type of measurement, a participant has to identify material that was previously learned. The participant is asked to remember a list of material. Later on they are shown the same list of material with additional information and they are asked to identify the material that was on the original list. The more they recognize, the less information is forgotten.^[12]

Free recall and variants

Free recall is a basic paradigm used to study human memory. In a free recall task, a subject is presented a list of to-be-remembered items, one at a time. For example, an experimenter might read a list of 20 words aloud, presenting a new word to the subject every 4 seconds. At the end of the presentation of the list, the subject is asked to recall the items (e.g., by writing down as many items from the list as possible). It is called a free recall task because the subject is free to recall the items in any order that he or she desires.^[13]

Prompted (cued) recall

Prompted recall is a slight variation of free recall that consists of presenting hints or prompts to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be produced. Usually these prompts are stimuli that were not there during the training period. Thus in order to measure the degree of forgetting, one can see how many prompts the subject misses or the number of prompts required to produce the behavior.^[12]

Relearning method

This method measures forgetting by the amount of training required to reach the previous level of performance. German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) used this method on himself. He memorized lists of nonsensical syllables until he could repeat the list two times without error. After a certain interval, he relearned the list and saw how long it would take him to do this task. If it took fewer times, then there had been less forgetting. His experiment was one of the first to study forgetting.^[12]

Recognition

Participants are given a list of words and that they have to remember. Then they are shown the same list of material with additional information and they are asked to identify the material that was on the original list. The more they recognize, the less information is forgotten.^[14]

Theories

The four main theories of forgetting apparent in the study of psychology are as follows:

Cue-dependent forgetting

Cue-dependent forgetting (also, context-dependent forgetting) or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded. Encoding is the first step in creating and remembering a memory. How well something has been encoded in the memory can be measured by completing specific tests of retrieval. Examples of these tests would be explicit ones like cued recall or implicit tests like word fragment completion.^[15] Cue-dependent forgetting is one of five cognitive psychology theories of forgetting. This theory states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can bring it to mind. A good metaphor for this is searching for a book in a library without the reference number, title, author or even subject. The information still exists, but without these cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a good retrieval cue must be consistent with the original encoding of the information. If the sound of the word is emphasized during the encoding process, the cue that should be used should also put emphasis on the phonetic quality of the word. Information is available however, just not readily available without these cues. Depending on the age of a person, retrieval cues and skills may not work as well. This is usually common in older adults but that is not always the case. When information is encoded into the memory and retrieved with a technique called spaced retrieval, this helps older adults retrieve the events stored in the memory better.^[1] There is also evidence from different studies that show age related changes in memory.^[15] These specific studies have shown that episodic memory performance does in fact decline with age and have made known that older adults produce vivid rates of forgetting when two items are combined and not encoded.^[1]

Organic causes

Forgetting that occurs through physiological damage or dilapidation to the brain are referred to as organic causes of forgetting. These theories encompass the loss of information already retained in long-term memory or the inability to encode new information again. Examples include Alzheimer's, amnesia, dementia, consolidation theory and the gradual slowing down of the central nervous system due to aging.

Interference theories

Interference theory refers to the idea that when the learning of something new causes forgetting of older material on the basis of competition between the two. This essentially states that memory's information may become confused or combined with other information during encoding, resulting in the distortion or disruption of memories.^[16] In nature, the interfering items are said to originate from an overstimulating environment. Interference theory exists in three branches: Proactive, Retroactive and Output. Retroactive and Proactive inhibition each referring in contrast to the other. Retroactive interference is when new information (memories) interferes with older information. On the other hand, proactive interference is when old information interferes with the retrieval of new information.^[17] This is sometimes thought to occur especially when memories are similar. Output Interference occurs when the initial act of recalling specific information interferes with the retrieval of the original information. Another reason why retrieval failure occurs is due to encoding failure. The information never made it to long-term memory storage. According to the level of processing theory, how well information is encoded depends on the level of processing a piece of information receives. Certain parts of information are better encoded than others; for example, information this visual imagery or that has a survival value is more easily transferred to the long-term memory storage.^[18] This theory shows a contradiction: an extremely intelligent individual is expected to forget more hastily than one who has a slow mentality. For this reason, an intelligent individual has stored up more memory in his mind which will cause interferences and impair their ability to recall specific information.^[19] Based on current research, testing interference has only been carried out by recalling from a list of words rather than using situation from daily lives, thus it is hard to generalize the findings for this theory.^[16] It has been found that interference related tasks decreased memory performance by up to 20%, with negative effects at all interference time points and large variability between participants concerning both the time point and the size of maximal interference. Furthermore, fast learners seem to be more affected by interference than slow learners.^[20] People are also less likely to recall items when intervening stimuli are presented within the first ten minutes after learning. Recall performance is better without interference.^[20] Peripheral processes such as encoding time, recognition memory and motor execution decline with age. However proactive interference is similar. Suggesting contrary to earlier reports that the inhibitory processes observed with this paradigm remain intact in older adults.^[21]

Trace decay theory

Decay theory states that when something new is learned, a neurochemical, physical "memory trace" is formed in the brain and over time this trace tends to disintegrate, unless it is occasionally used. Decay theory states the reason we eventually forget something or an event is because the memory of it fades with time. If we do not attempt to look back at an event, the greater the interval time between the time when the event from happening and the time when we try to remember, the memory will start to fade. Time is the greatest impact in remembering an event.^[22]

Trace decay theory explains memories that are stored in both short-term and long-term memory system, and assumes that the memories leave a trace in the brain.^[16] According to this theory, short-term memory (STM) can only retain information for a limited amount of time, around 15 to 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed. If it is not rehearsed, the information will start to gradually fade away and decay. Donald Hebb proposed that incoming information causes a series of neurons to create a neurological memory trace in the brain which would result in change in the morphological and/or chemical changes in the brain and would fade with time. Repeated firing causes a structural change in the synapses. Rehearsal of repeated firing maintains the memory in STM until a structural change is made. Therefore, forgetting happens as a result of automatic decay of the memory trace in brain. This theory states that the events between learning and recall have no effects on recall; the important factor that affects is the duration that the information has been retained. Hence, as longer time passes more of traces are subject to decay and as a result the information is forgotten.

One major problem about this theory is that in real-life situation, the time between encoding a piece of information and recalling it, is going to be filled with all different kinds of events that might happen to the individual. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude that forgetting is a result of only the time duration. It is also important to consider the effectiveness of this theory. Although it seems very plausible, it is about impossible to test. It is difficult to create a situation where there is a blank period of time between presenting the material and recalling it later.^[16]

This theory is supposedly contradicted by the fact that one is able to ride a bike even after not having done so for decades. "Flashbulb memories" are another piece of seemingly contradicting evidence. It is believed that certain memories "trace decay" while others do not.^{[citation needed]} Sleep is believed to play a key role in halting trace decay, although the exact mechanism of this is unknown.^{[citation needed]}

Physical and chemical changes in our brain lead to a memory trace, and this is based on the idea of the trace theory of memory. Information that gets into our short-term memory lasts a few seconds (15–20 seconds), and it fades away if it is not rehearsed or practiced as the neurochemical memory trace disappears rapidly. According to the trace decay theory of forgetting, what occurs between the creation of new memories and the recall of these memories is not influenced by the recall. However, the time between these events (memory formation and recalling) decides whether the information can be kept or forgotten. As there is an inverse correlation that if the time is short, more information can be recalled. On the other hand, if the time is long less information can be recalled or more information will be forgotten. This theory can be criticized for not sharing ideas on how some memories can stay and others can fade, though there was a long time between the formation and recall. Newness to something plays a crucial role in this situation. For instance, people are more likely to recall their very first day abroad than all of the intervening days between it and living there. Emotions also play a crucial role in this situation.^[23]

Impairments and lack of forgetting

Forgetting can have very different causes than simply removal of stored content. Forgetting can mean access problems, availability problems, or can have other reasons such as amnesia caused by an accident.

An inability to forget can cause distress, as with post-traumatic stress disorder and hyperthymesia (in which people have an extremely detailed autobiographical memory).

Social forgetting

Psychologists have called attention to "social aspects of forgetting".^[24] Though often loosely defined, social amnesia is generally considered to be the opposite of collective memory. "Social amnesia" was first discussed by Russell Jacoby, yet his use of the term was restricted to a narrow approach, which was limited to what he perceived to be a relative neglect of psychoanalytical theory in psychology. The cultural historian Peter Burke suggested that "it may be worth investigating the social organization of forgetting, the rules of exclusion, suppression or repression, and the question of who wants whom to forget what".^[25] In an in-depth historical study spanning two centuries, Guy Beiner proposed the term "social forgetting", which he distinguished from crude notions of "collective amnesia" and "total oblivion", arguing that "social forgetting is to be found in the interface of public silence and more private remembrance".^[26] The philosopher Walter Benjamin sees social forgetting closely linked to the question of present-day interests, arguing that "every image of the past that is not recognized by the present as one of its own concerns threatens to disappear irretrievably".^[27] Building on this, the sociologist David Leupold argued in the context of competing national narratives that what is suppressed and forgotten in one national narrative "might appear at the core of past narrations by the other" - thus often leading to diametrically opposed, mutually exclusive accounts on the past.^[28]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Maddox, G. B.; Balota, D. A.; Coane, J. H. & Duchek, J. M. (2011). "The role of forgetting rate in producing a benefit of expanded over equal spaced retrieval in young and older adults". Psychology and Aging. 26 (3): 661–670. doi:10.1037/a0022942. PMC 3168729. PMID 21463056.
^ Wayne, W. & McCann, D. (2007). Psychology: Themes & Variety 2nd Canadian ed. Nelson Education Ltd: Thompson Wadsworth Publisher. ISBN 978-0-17-647273-3.
^ John T. Wixted; Shana K. Carpenter. "The Wickelgren Power Law and the Ebbinghaus Savings Function" (PDF). Psychological Science. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 8, 2016. Retrieved August 31, 2016.
^ ^a ^b ^c Szabo, A. N.; McAuley, E.; Erickson, K. I.; Voss, M.; Prakash, R. S.; Mailey, E. L.; Kramer, A. F.; et al. (2011). "Cardiorespiratory fitness, hippocampal volume, and frequency of forgetting in older adults". Neuropsychology. 25 (5): 545–553. doi:10.1037/a0022733. PMC 3140615. PMID 21500917.
^ ^a ^b Kohn, Art (9 February 2015). "Use It or Lose It". TD.
^ Murre, Jaap M. J.; Dros, Joeri (6 July 2015). "Replication and Analysis of Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve". PLOS ONE. 10 (7): e0120644. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1020644M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120644. PMC 4492928. PMID 26148023.
^ Hockenbury, Sandra. (2010)
^ "Memory: Forgetting". Spark Notes. Retrieved 2 May 2014.
^ McNally, R.J. (2004). "The Science and Folklore of Traumatic Amnesia". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 11 (1): 29–33. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bph056.
^ "Repressed Memories and Recovered Memory Therapy". Jan Groenveld.
^ Malmberg, Kenneth J.; Raaijmakers, Jeroen G. W.; Shiffrin, Richard M. (28 January 2019). "50 years of research sparked by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)". Memory & Cognition. 47 (4): 561–574. doi:10.3758/s13421-019-00896-7. PMID 30689198.
^ ^a ^b ^c Chance, Paul (2014). Learning and behavior (Seventh ed.). Jon-David Hague. pp. 346–371. ISBN 978-1-111-83277-3.
^ Bjork, Robert A.; Woodward, Addison E. (1973). "Directed forgetting of individual words in free recall". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 99: 22–27. doi:10.1037/h0034757.
^ http://www.chegg.com. (n.d.). Learn About Measures Of Forgetting | Chegg.com. [online] Available at: https://www.chegg.com/learn/psychology/introduction-to-psychology/measures-of-forgetting.
^ ^a ^b Craik, F. M., & Rose, N. S. (2011). Memory encoding and aging: A neurocognitive perspective. Neuroscience And Biobehavioral Reviews
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d McLeod, Saul. "Forgetting". Simply Psychology. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
^ Underwood, B.J. (1957). 'Interference and forgetting' in Psychological Review
^ E Bruce Goldstein (2019). Cognitive psychology : connecting mind, research, and everyday experience. 5th ed. Boston, Ma, Usa: Cengage.
^ "Forgetting". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 90 (13): 794. 1964. PMC 1922558. PMID 20327804.
^ ^a ^b Sosic-Vasic, Zrinka; Hille, Katrin; Kröner, Julia; Spitzer, Manfred; Kornmeier, Jürgen (16 February 2018). "When Learning Disturbs Memory – Temporal Profile of Retroactive Interference of Learning on Memory Formation". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 82. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00082. PMC 5820352. PMID 29503621.
^ Archambeau, Kim; Forstmann, Birte; Van Maanen, Leendert; Gevers, Wim (February 2020). "Proactive interference in aging: A model-based study". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 27 (1): 130–138. doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01671-0. PMC 7000511. PMID 31797260. S2CID 208620951.
^ "The Decay Theory of Forgetting".
^ Ricker, Timothy J.; Vergauwe, Evie; Cowan, Nelson (October 2016). "Decay Theory of Immediate Memory: From Brown (1958) to Today (2014)". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 69 (10): 1969–1995. doi:10.1080/17470218.2014.914546. PMC 4241183. PMID 24853316.
^ Hirst, William; Yamashiro, Jeremy K. (2018), "Social Aspects of Forgetting", in Meade, M.L.; et al. (eds.), Collaborative Remembering: Theories, Research, and Applications, Oxford University Press, pp. 76–99
^ Burke, Peter (1989), "History as Social Memory", in Butler, Thomas (ed.), Memory: History, Culture and the Mind, Blackwell, pp. 97–113
^ Beiner, Guy (2018). Forgetful Remembrance: Social Forgetting and Vernacular Historiography of a Rebellion in Ulster. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-874935-6.
^ Benjamin, Walter (c. 1986) [1968]. Illuminations. Hannah Arendt, Harry Zohn. New York: Schocken Books. p. 255. ISBN 0-8052-0241-2. OCLC 12947710.
^ Leupold, David (2020). Embattled dreamlands: the politics of contesting Armenian, Kurdish and Turkish memory. New York: Routledge. p. 9 page. ISBN 978-0-429-34415-2. OCLC 1130319782.

Sources

Wixted, John T. (February 2004). "The Psychology and Neuroscience of Forgetting". Annual Review of Psychology. 55 (1): 235–269. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141555. PMID 14744216. S2CID 3057114.
McLeod, S. A. (2008). Simply Psychology; . Retrieved 19 February 2012, from Simply Psychology

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Forgetting.

Look up forgetting in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The End of Forgetting An article by Jeffrey Rosen
Forgetting: High School Psychology
Causes of Forgetting & Learning
Forgetting is Key to a Healthy Mind

Human memory

Basic concepts

Types

Sensory	Echoic Eidetic Eyewitness Haptic Iconic Motor learning Visual
Short-term	"The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two" Working memory
Long-term	Active recall Autobiographical Explicit Declarative Episodic Semantic Flashbulb Hyperthymesia Implicit Meaningful learning Personal-event Procedural Rote learning Selective retention Tip of the tongue