William Joseph Snelling

William Joseph Snelling (December 26, 1804 – December 24, 1848) was an American adventurer, writer, poet, and journalist. His short stories about American Indian life were the first to attempt to accurately portray the Plains Indians and among the first attempts at realism by an American writer. Snelling's short story collections were among the earliest in the United States. He wrote for New England and New York City periodicals on subjects such as American writing, gambling, and prison conditions.

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[Brian Szott] I like coming to Fort Snelling in the winter. It's free of visitors and it's really quiet. Without the foliage, the site lines are excellent and offer impressive vistas from several vantage points. In addition, the harsh weather is a stark reminder of the conditions early residents had to endure. Fort Snelling has had an illustrious and notable past. For decades it served as the military commercial and social center of the region. Well known soldiers assigned to the fort included Zachary Taylor, Jefferson Davis, and the artist Seth Eastman. Explorers including Henry Schoolcraft, Joseph Nicollet, and Count Baltrami stopped here before continuing on their journeys through the wilderness. In later years, Fort Snelling was decided the Dakota internment. In the 20th century, it served as an induction training center during the first and second World War before being decommissioned in 1946. Fort Snelling has been the focus of artistic endeavors for generations. I am Brian Szott, curator of art for the Minnesota Historical Society, and I am talking today about picturing Fort Snelling in art and photography. Built on land purchased from the Indians by Zebulon Pike in 1805, the construction of Fort Saint Anthony, as it was originally called, began an earnest in the summer of 1820 as soon as Colonel Josiah Snelling arrived. His predecessor has sided the fort slightly away from the bluffs from maximum military advantage. Snelling, not knowing fearing an attack from British or any other forest, preferred the more dramatic impressive the location on the bluffs directly above the confluence of the Mississippi and what is now called Minnesota Rivers, at the crossroads between the civilizations and the wilderness. And what a sight indeed. Imagine the reaction of visitors after a long journey up the river through the vast stretches of unspoiled territory when they saw the gleaming white washed walls of the fort made from limestone quarried on location. Early depictions of the fort are rare but a few do exist. There are sketches from the 1820s by early settlers such as the Swiss artist, Peter Rindisbacher, and of course soldiers such as the 26 year old Seth Eastman who drew this sketch during his first tour of duty in 1833. Of all the artists, Seth Eastman is the one most affiliated with Fort Snelling. After his brief 1830 stint Eastman returned as post commandant in the 1840s sketching and painting sites and scenes around the fort and along the rivers. The fort has a focal point picking up momentum during Minnesota's territorial period. Settlement and trade had quicken during this time causing a steady stream of visitors and artists. Paintings from the 1850s seem to capture a young nations' entire yet tiny foothold on the vast frontier. In the foreground of this painting by Sergeant Edward Thomas, you can see Henry Sibley's commercial interest of Mendota's fur trading post. On the bluff's above, the fort flexes its military muscle. To the left is the U.S. Government Indian Agency. So in this single painting all three legs of the stool that formed the American presence on the frontier are represented. These paintings also document the new arrivals ever increasing environmental impact on the region. Notice how deforested the river valley appears. It's remarkable when compared to earlier written descriptions of a heavily forested river valley. To survive, soldiers and residents were burning thousands of cords firewood each year. Historical and architectural information about the fort can be better investigated through the Historical Society's extensive collection of photographs. Shortly after the camera arrived in Minnesota around 1850, the fort becomes a subject of the photographers' lens. Here is just a sampling of our photographs from Fort Snelling. These images trace the fort's transition from a military post at the frontier at midcentury to a picturesque park for weekend visitors from the expanding cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul at century's end. Returning to the paintings of Fort Snelling in the late 19th century, as American painters throughout the country focus on the grandeur of landscape, Fort Snelling took on an even greater symbolic significance. In the 1880s the fort was often depicted from a distance to capture the unfolding river valley below. These romantic visions portrayed the fort like an ancient European castle even at a time of the fort's usefulness as the military outpost was in decline. Could these paintings perhaps be tinged with a nostalgia for the fort's splendid past? One of the most stunning paintings in our collection is this 1888 panorama but Minnesota artist Alexis Fournier. His point of view is from the flood plain at river's edge, high above the fort towers. Closer inspection reveals that the walls crumble half moon battery that are in ruins, sheep graze lazily below, and traffic on the bridge passes by oblivious to the fort's heavy past. With the advent of the new century, American art changed its focus away from the grand and heroic to the more personal and expressive. The fort too had irreversibly changed. Its military function have moved down farther down the river. The original fort, now in disrepair, had become a mere curiosity. The era of the mighty castle on the plains was over. Its relationship to the river lost. A city park dissected and crisscrossed by all modes of transportation picture as and completely subdued. And speaking of transportation, for better or for worse, Fort Snelling has been the hub of Minnesota's transportation history. From canoes and steamboats on the river, to ferries and bridges above, and from trolley lines, interstate clover leaves, and international air travel, it all seemed to have happened under the fort's stately presence. In 1895, on the fort's 75th anniversary, an editorial in the St. Paul Pioneer Press said this, "Few American cities are in possession of a spot at once so historic, so beautiful, and so accessible." This statement still rings true today as 80,000 people visit one of Minnesota's Historical Society's most important sites each year. I'm Brian Szott for the Minnesota Historical Society.

Early life

William Joseph Snelling was born on December 26, 1804, in Boston, Massachusetts. His father, Josiah Snelling, was an officer in the army, and his mother was Elizabeth Bell. His mother died when he was six years old, and Snelling moved outside Boston to live with relatives and attend school. At age 14, Snelling entered West Point.^[1]

Life on "the frontier"

Two years later, Snelling left West Point and gradually moved west. He lived with the Dakota tribe of American Indians for a winter. In 1821, Snelling reached his father's military post at Fort St. Anthony (later Fort Snelling) at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. William Joseph Snelling stayed there for five years, trading in furs and exploring the surroundings. During his time with the Dakota, he had learned their language and customs, and he worked as an interpreter between the Indian Agency and the Indians. For example, he helped negotiate the resolution of hostilities between the Dakota and the Chippewa and Winnebago tribes.

On September 15, 1826, at Fort Crawford, Prairie du Chien, at the confluence of the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers (now Crawford County, WI), William J. Snelling married Dionice Fournier.^[2] She was born in Villeret, Canton of Berne, Switzerland in 1810.^[3] In 1821 she immigrated to the Red River Colony/Selkirk settlement (in the portion of Rupertsland that would, in 1870, become Manitoba, Canada) with her widowed mother and three siblings.^[4] Dionice died in 1827 outside of Fort Crawford. Josiah Snelling died in 1828, and William Joseph Snelling moved on.^[1]

Writing career (and his social / political activism)

Snelling returned to Boston and entered the writing field. Over the next 20 years, he wrote pieces for American Monthly, Boston Book, the Boston Herald, the New England Galaxy, Joseph T. Buckingham's New England Magazine, North American Review, and Samuel Griswold Goodrich's Token.^[1] Snelling expressed frank opinions on American society and proposed social reforms, earning him both praise and enmity.^[5] Truth: A New Year's Gift for Scribblers is an early example. The piece, written in 1831, satirizes American letters. As editor of the New England Galaxy, Snelling initiated an anti-gambling movement among Boston's newspapers. He was sued for libel and fought back by publishing his editorials in pamphlet form, called "Exposé of the Vice of Gaming", in 1833. He used the proceeds to pay his legal costs. He later served four months in jail for drunkenness. The experience led him in 1837 to take on prison reform with his The Rat-Trap; or Cogitations of a Convict in the House of Correction.^[6]

Tales of the Northwest and other "Indian" and "frontier" short stories

Snelling earned his greatest fame as a writer of short stories about his experiences on the American frontier. He realized that the lifestyle of the Plains Indians was under threat, and he deemed the popular characterization of Indians in American literature to be stereotyped and inaccurate. He thus tried for realism in his stories, making him one of the earliest American writers to do so. In 1830, Snelling published a compilation of ten of his frontier stories as Tales of the Northwest; or, Sketches of Indian Life and Character; this is one of the earliest short story collections published in the United States.^[1]

According to Israel Augustus Newhall, writing half a century after the fact, we get this glimpse of young William J. Snelling as he prepared Tales of the Northwest for publication: "Among those who at this time – about 1829 – frequented the office, was William J. Snelling, then a young man of twenty-five years. His interesting work delineated scenes and experiences beyond the frontier, giving graphic pictures of his life far away from any civilized community, was then in process of printing, and was, I believe, the first book he ever issued. It fell to my lot to read the first proofs. Mr. Snelling was a striking character; vigorous, fearless and industrious. He was born in Boston, was a son of Col. Josiah Snelling, and educated at West Point."^[7]

Modern ethnographers still recognize his works as the first accurate literary portrayal of the lifestyle of the Plains Indians.^[6] In "The Last of the Iron Hearts", Snelling wrote, "[We] beg leave to assure our readers, that the Indian is not the ferocious brute of Hubbard and Mather, or the brilliant, romantic, half-French, half-Celtic Mohegan and Yemassee created by Symmes and Cooper."^[8] He further claimed that one "must live, emphatically, live, with Indians; share with them their lodges, their food, and their blankets, for years, before he can comprehend their ideas, or enter into their feelings."^[9]

Boston years: other fiction and journalism (1830-1838)

Throughout the 1830s, while based in his native Boston, Snelling's literary output was prodigious. He wrote several books, dozens of short stories and poems, as well as book reviews and other political journalism and social satire. Throughout these same years, Snelling was frequently employed as the editor of one or another of various Boston newspapers.

Soon after Tales of the Northwest came Tales of travels west of the Mississippi, A brief and impartial history of the life and actions of Andrew Jackson, president of the United States (1831), Tales of travels in Central Africa (1831), and Truth, a gift for scribblers, in 1832.

Frederic Hudson had this to say of Snelling's time as editor of the New-England Galaxy:^[10]

The New England Galaxy, the publication of which was commenced by [Joseph T.] Buckingham in 1820, has been edited by a number of writers at different periods. Theophilus Parsons, author of “Deux Homo” and “The Infinite and the Finite,” and for many years Professor of Law in Harvard College, was one. About 1833 it was under the management of William J. Snelling, a very erratic, but brilliant and powerful writer at that time. When he had charge of the Galaxy he made a desperate war upon the gamblers of Boston. He had his office ornamented with the paraphernalia of an extensive gambling establishment. All sorts of threats were made against him by the gamblers. It was the sensation of that day. So many stories were related of him that people visited his office in numbers to see it, and its wonderful and bold editor. He was always found, at that time, in a miniature fortress, selling his own paper over the counter. He was to be seen on Sunday mornings in his shirt sleeves, walking to and fro, evidently ready for any emergency. We believe no attack was made upon him; the matter became a nine days’ wonder, and after that Snelling edited, for a brief period, a paper called the Censor, in New York. Several young journalists, such as Isaac C. Pray and A.L. Stimson, took charge of the Galaxy in 1838, and managed it till they sought “other fields and pastures green.

In the spring of 1838, Snelling left Boston for New York City, with some regret. He wrote in the Censor: "Cradle of my infancy, school of my manhood, grave of my hopes, farewell, I think, forever. I have done thee some service, and thou knowest it - how I have been thanked thou also knowest. With all thy faults, I love thee still... Boston is no place for a man to live in. He can obtain but small compensation for his labor, and this half the time, he cannot get. Still, Boston forever! There was I born, and there would I gladly lay my wearied bones. Fare thee well! Boston." Snelling spent most of the next nine years in New York City, but returned to his home town in 1847 to become editor of the Boston Herald, a position he held until his death in late 1848.^[11]

New York years (1838-1847)

Snelling spent the years 1838 to 1847 in New York City, editing a number of newspapers and magazines. Upon his arrival in New York, Snelling started the Censor.^[12] For a short time, he also was editor of the Polyanthos,^[13] and worked as a writer for Wooldridge's Whip and Satirist of New-York and Brooklin in 1842.^[14] Snelling was a key player in the weekly Sunday Flash, while at the same time served as editor of the "more respectable" weekly the Sunday Times, along "with a young editorial partner named Walter Whitman." Later, in mid-1843, the Sunday Times merged with Mordecai Noah's Weekly Messenger.^[15] Through the Sunday Flash, Snelling developed a notorious reputation for his pioneering role in what Patricia Cline Cohen, Timothy J. Gilfoyle and Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz describe as the "Flash Press," New York City "small weekly newspapers ... aimed to entertain and enlighten literate sporting men about leisure-time activities and erotic entertainments available" in that city, especially in the period from late 1841 to early 1843. "Distinguished by a trenchant, mocking humor and a titillating brew of gossip about prostitutes, theatrical denizens, and sports contests, the papers offered guidance to men young and old intent on navigating the new world of unrestricted pleasure and commercialized leisure in the city. They frequently defended such behaviors in the vernacular of republicanism and democracy."^[16]

Return to Boston (1847-1848)

In the spring of 1847, Snelling returned to Boston to become editor of the Boston Herald, a position he held until his death in late 1848. In these final 18 months of his life, Snelling covered the endgame of the Mexican-American War, as well as the 1848 presidential election. Under Snelling, the Boston Herald took a strong position in support of the eventual winner of that election, Zachary Taylor of the Whig Party, who defeated both Democrat Lewis Cass and former president Martin Van Buren of the Free Soil Party.^[17]

Death

Snelling died on December 24, 1848.^[1] "Within four hours after the death of Mr. Snelling, his father-in-law, Mr. Simon Jordan, (with whom Mr. S. lived,) fell from his chair and suddenly expired also."^[18]

Critical reception

Nineteenth century

Several years after Snelling's death, this assessment of Snelling and his work appeared in The Cyclopaedia of Anecdotes of Literature and the Fine Arts:^[19] Most of our readers must have been acquainted with William J. Snelling, of Boston, a man whose mind was like a good and beautiful ship, driven about at the mercy of the winds and the waves, without sails or compass. He was a lawyer and a writer, and in his latter profession distinguished himself as a keen, powerful, but vindictive satirist: his wit, too, was as pointed and brilliant as his sarcasm, and his observation of men and things was quick and vigorous. His Tales of the North-west, which first brought him into notice some ten years since, -- in short, all his prose articles as well as his poetry, -- have always found a ready publication, and numerous and admiring readers. All have given him a high intellectual character, and a literary reputation which will long survive him. Such were some of his virtues, but his prominent follies and vices were more visible and no less numerous. From his ill success in life, his poverty, and his disappointments, he flew to the last and worst expedient of drowning sorrow, by drinking deep from the bowl of the drunkard. Remorse then did its work and William J. Snelling, the man of genius and education, was found, first a drunkard in the watch-house, then a volunteer petitioner at the Police Court, begging that he might “be placed out of the public view for six month.” The prison was now his home, and he prisoner free from temptation.}}

Twentieth century

Snelling's tales met with critical acclaim, and modern critics praise them. In 1923, Fred Lewis Pattee wrote that "his Indian stories are undoubtedly the best written during the early period [of American literature]"^[20] Contemporary biographer Mary R. Reichardt credits Snelling with "creating . . . engaging and vigorous tales based on Native-American life and legend as well as stories of the cultural conflict resulting from the early white settlements on the frontier", although the stories "lapse at times into sentimentality and didacticism."^[6]

Selected works of William Joseph Snelling

Books

Snelling's authorship either verified, or generally accepted

Tales of the Northwest, or, Sketches of Indian Life and Character, by a Resident Beyond the Frontier, (Boston: Hilliard, Gray, Little, and Wilkins, 1830); reprinted, with an introduction by John T. Flanagan (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1936); reprinted, with an edited and introduction by David Stineback (New Haven: College * Univ. Press, 1975).
A Brief and Impartial History of the Life and Actions of Andrew Jackson, President of the United States, by A Free Man, (Boston: Stimpson and Clapp, 1831).
The Polar Regions of the Western Continent Explored, (Boston: Printed for W.W. Reed, 1831)
Truth: A New Year's Gift for Scribblers, (Boston: Stephen Foster, 1831)
Truth, A Gift for Scribblers.Second Edition, with additions and emendations, (Boston: B.B. Mussey, 1832).
Exposé of the Vice of Gaming, as it lately existed in Massachusetts. Boston: W.J.Snelling, 1833.
Trial of William J. Snelling: for a libel on the Honorable Benjamin Whitman, senior judge of the Police Court: Commonwealth vs. Snelling, (Boston: printed for the reporter, 1834).
The Rat-Trap; or Cogitations of a Convict in the House of Correction. Boston: G.M. Thomson, 1837.

Writing for Samuel Griswold Goodrich, under the pseudonym of Solomon Bell:

Tales of Travel West of the Mississippi, (Boston: Gray and Bowen, 1830).
Tales of Travels in Central Africa, (Boston: Greay and Bowen, 1831).

Snelling's authorship either suggested, yet still unproved, or otherwise disputed

William Apess, Indian nullification of the unconstitutional laws of Massachusetts relative to the Marshpee tribe, or, The pretended riot explained, (Boston: Press of Jonathan Howe, 1835).^[21]

Book reviews, "Literary Notices" etc.

"Literary Notices: Poems by William Cullen Bryant," New-England Magazine, (March 1832), pp. 265-266.
"Literary Notices: Indian Biography; Samuel Drake," The New-England Magazine, Vol 2, Issue 6 (June 1832), pp. 525-527/
"Literary Notices: Remarks made on a Tour to Prairie du Chien. By Caleb Atwater," New-England Magazine, Vol.3, Issue 3, (Sept.1832), pp. 247-253.
REVIEW: The Present State of New-England with respect to the Indian War. Wherein is an Account of the true Reason thereof, (as far as can be judged by Men.) Together with most of the Remarkable Passages that have happened fro the 20th of June till the 10th of November 1675, reprinted by Josiah Drake, Antiquarian Bookstore, 56 Cornhill, 1833.
REVIEW: Samuel Drake, "Biography and History of the Indians of North-America, &c." The New-England Magazine (June 1834).
REVIEW: "Life of Black Hawk," review of Life of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-SheKia-Kiak, or Black Hawk [sic], by Black Hawk, North American Review 40 (1835): 68, 69.

Short stories

"Indian" or "Frontier" short stories

“Pah Erashuatee, or The Metamorphosis” in The Amateur. Boston, Vol. I, No.2, July 3, 1830, pp. 22–24.
"A Journey Up the Mississippi" in The Amateur. Boston. in two parts: Vol I, No.6, September 4, 1830, pp. 85–88; Vol. I, No.7, October 1, 1830, pp. 101–105.
"A Night in the Woods" - first appearance in The Amateur. Boston. Vol I, No. 8, October 23, 1830, pp. 117–119; reprinted in the New-England Galaxy as "A Tale in the Woods" on October 29, 1830. Reprinted, with alterations, with the original title, "A Night in the Woods," in Ladies' Companion, A Monthly Magazine of Literature and the Arts, Embellished with Many Different Engravings, with Music, arranged for the Piano Forte, &c. &c, (New York: W.W. Snowden), 4: 98-100 (January 1836); reprinted in The Boston Book, Being Specimens of Metropolitan Literature, pp. 40–48 (1836).
"The Siege of Fort Madison" in The Amateur. Boston. in two parts: Vol. I, No. 9, November 6, 1830; Vol. I, no. 10, November 22, 1830, pp. 141–145.
"A Tale of the Northwest" in The Amateur Vol.I, No.12, January 15, 1831, pp. 173–177.
"Te Zahpahtah. A Sketch from Indian History" in The Token: A Christmas and New Year's Present, 1831, edited by S.G. Goodrich (Boston, 1831).
"Original Letters of an Indian Chief" in four parts, in The New-England Galaxy, September–October 1831.
"The Fortunes of Mendokaycheenah" in The New-England Magazine, Vol. 3, Issue 4, October 1832, pp. 290–296.
"A Sketch of Indian Character" in The New-England Magazine, Vol. 3, Issue 6, December 1832, pp. 462–470.
"Shoankah Shahpah, or, The Dirty Dog, a Tale of the Kahpozhahs" in The New-England Magazine, Vol.4, Issue 3, March 1833, pp. 187–195.
"The Last of the Iron Hearts" in The American Monthly Magazine, New Series, Vol. I, March 1836, pp. 239–244.
"An Indian Treaty Scene. From the Journal of an Officer." in The American Monthly Magazine, New Series, Vol. I, May 1836, pp. 465–473.
"Nonona: A Tale of Indian Fortitude" in three parts, in The Morning News, Vol. 1, nos. 74, 75, and 76; December 27, 28, and 29, 1837.
"Mah-to-khay To-Pah, 'The Four-Bears'. A Tale of the North-West." (also titled "The Last of the Mandans" in The Knickerbocker, Vol. XV, May 1840, pp. 396–412.

"Other" short stories

"Falling in Love," in The Amateur, Vol I, No.3 (July 17, 1830), pp. 36-37.
"The Tea Fiend. A Legend of the Revolution," in The Amateur, in three parts: Vol. 1, no. 3 (July 17, 1830), pp. 33-36; Vol. 1, no 4 (Aug. 7, 1830), pp. 53-56; Vol. 2, no. 5 (Aug. 21, 1830), pp. 69-72.
"The Pirate" in The Amateur, Vol. I, No. II, (January 1, 1831), pp. 157–160.
"A Duel, or, Honorable Satisfaction", in The Amateur, Vol.I, No. 13, (January 29, 1831).
"The Heir of Linn," The [Boston] Morning News, Vol.1, (Oct.6, 1837).
"Johnny Raw's Journey to Boston," The [Boston] Morning News. Oct. 11, 1837. Re
"The Royal Family of Staten-Island, by the author of Four Bears, The Mandan" in The Knickerbocker, (July 1840), pp. 52–55.

Non-fiction

Articles

"Character, Manners, Habits and Origin of the Aborigines of North America," comprising Chapter X of Grenville Mellen, ed., A Book of the United States, (New York: H.F. Sumner & Co., 1839) pp. 424-435.
"American Antiquities," comprising Chapter XI of Grenville Mellen, ed., A Book of the United States, (New York: H.F. Sumner & Co., 1839), pp. 436-444.

Autobiographical Sketches

"First Love," The [Boston] Morning News, Oct. 11, 1837.

Biographical Sketches

"The Little Crow, aka, The Sparrowhawk; in Dakota, Chaytahn Wawkooah Mahnee," The [Boston] Morning News, Oct. 31, 1837.
"Sketch of the Life and Public Services of Gen. Lewis Cass," in 5 parts, Boston Herald, 5 June, 6 June, 8 June, 17 June, 24 June, 1848, with an addendum titled "Cass and Consistency" 27 June, 1848.

News/Commentary

"The Late Sioux Treaty," The [Boston] Morning News, Thurs., Oct. 12, 1837, p.2, col.1.
"Black Hawk & Keocuck. Indian Deputation," The [Boston] Morning News, in three parts (Oct. 30, Nov.1, Nov. 2, 1837).
"The Indians," The [Boston] Morning News, Tues, Oct. 31, 1837.
"The Treacherous Capture of Osceola by Jessup" in the [Boston] Daily Evening News , Monday 14 January 1838, page 2, column I.
"Osceola" in [New York] Sunday Times, Vol. I, No.13 (Sept 26 or Oct 3, 1841), front page, above the fold.

Satire

"A Dialogue Between a Christian and a Jew," Boston Pearl & Literary Gazette, Vol.4, Issue 21 (Jan.31, 1835), pp. 168-169.

Poetry

The Birth of Thunder in The Token: A Christmas and New Year's Present, 1831, edited by S.G. Goodrich (Boston, 1831), pp. 177–183; reprinted in William Cullen Bryant, Selections from the American Poets, 1840; reprinted in Rufus Wilmot Griswold, The Poets and Poetry of America: With an Historical Introduction, 1842.
"The Snow Shoe" in The Token: A Christmas and New Year's Present, 1831, edited by S.G. Goodrich (Boston, 1831).
"On a Shot Eagle" in the Liberator, 6 August 1831; revised and reprinted as "The Shot Eagle" in the [Boston] Morning News, Vol. 1, Friday, October 6, 1837.
"The Seven Foresters of Chatsworth," American Monthly Magazine,Vol. 10 (October 1837), p. 369-373.

Notes

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Reichardt 336.
^ "Alphabetical index to Wisconsin, Crawford County, marriages, 1816-1866, Joseph Snelling married Dionice Fournier, p.28". www.gengophers.com. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
^ "Schweiz, Katholische und Reformiert Kirchenbücher, 1418-1996", , St. Imier, Canton of Berne, Switzerland. Entry for baptism of Dionice Fournier, 15 Jul 1810.
^ Bovay, Emile (1976). Le Canada et Les Suisses, 1604-1974 [Canada and the Swiss, 1604-1974] (in French). Fribourg, Switzerland: Edition Universitaires, Fribourg, Suisse. pp. 191–192.
^ Reichardt 336–7.
^ ^a ^b ^c Reichardt 337.
^ Israel Augustus Newhall and Howard Mudge Newhall, The Legacy of an Octogenarian, (Lynn, Mass: the Nichols Press, 1897), p. 75.
^ Quoted in Reichardt 337.
^ Preface to Tales, quoted in Reichardt 337.
^ Frederic Hudson, Journalism in the United States, from 1690-1872 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1873), Chapter XXIII.
^ William J. Snelling, "Farewell to Boston," The Censor, Tuesday, April 10, 1838, p. 2, col. 1
^ Patricia Cline Cohen, Timothy J. Gilfoyle & Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, The Flash Press: Sporting Male Weeklies in 1840s New York, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008),, p. 32
^ The Flash Press, p. 44.
^ The Flash Press, p.96.
^ The Flash Press, p.110.
^ The Flash Press, p.1
^ See the various issues of the Boston Herald from April 1847 through November 1838.
^ The New England Historical & Genealogical Register, Vol.III, January 1849, Boston, p. 103.
^ Kazlit Arvine, The Cyclopaedia of Anecdotes of Literature and the Fine Arts: {{blockquote|Containing a Copious and Choice Selection of Anectoes Of the Various Forms of Literature of the Arts, of Architecture, Engravings, Music, Poety, Painting and Sculpture, and of the Most Celebrated Literary Characters and Artists of Different Countries and Ages, Etc., (Boston: Gould and Lincoln, 1853)
^ Development of the American Short Story, quoted in Reichardt 337.
^ See Laura L. Mielke, "Native to the Question: William Apess, Black Hawk, and the Sentimental Context of Early Native American Autobiography," in American Indian Quarterly, Vol. 26, No.2 (Spring 2002), footnote 21: "W. J. Snelling, "Life of Black Hawk," review of Life of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-SheKia-Kiak, or Black Hawk [sic], by Black Hawk, North American Review 40 (1835): 68, 69. Konkle also discusses this review in "Indian Literacy," 475-77. Snelling's argument that Apess's writing is not truly Indian in nature is particularly interesting given the assertion by Samuel Gardner Drake and the conjecture of subsequent bibliographers that Shelling and not Apess actually wrote Indian Nullification of the Unconstitutional Laws of Massachusetts Relative to the Marshpee Tribe (1835). Barry O'Connell does not believe Snelling authored Indian Nullification though he concedes he may have contributed to it. See his introduction to On Our Own Ground: The Complete Writings of William Apess, a Pequot, ed. Barry O'Connell (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), xliii."

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