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Sullivan Expedition

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sullivan Expedition
Part of American Revolutionary War

Commemorative plaque of the Sullivan Expedition in Lodi, New York
DateJune 18 – October 3, 1779
Location
Result American victory
Belligerents
Iroquois Confederacy
 Great Britain
United States
Commanders and leaders
Sayenqueraghta
Cornplanter
Joseph Brant
Little Beard
John Butler
John Sullivan
James Clinton
Edward Hand
Enoch Poor
William Maxwell
Daniel Brodhead
Strength
1,000 Iroquois
200–250 Butler's Rangers)
4,000
Casualties and losses
Unknown 33 killed, 41 wounded[1]
Total Iroquois casualties:
5,000 refugees,
4,500 deaths from starvation, exposure, disease, and violence (per Koehler)[2]

The 1779 Sullivan Expedition (also known as the Sullivan-Clinton Expedition, the Sullivan Campaign, and the Sullivan-Clinton Genocide[2]) was a United States military campaign during the American Revolutionary War, lasting from June to October 1779, against the four British-allied nations of the Iroquois (also known as the Haudenosaunee). The campaign was ordered by George Washington in response to the 1778 Iroquois and British attacks on the Wyoming Valley, German Flatts, and Cherry Valley. The campaign had the aim of "taking the war home to the enemy to break their morale."[1] The Continental Army carried out a scorched-earth campaign in the territory of the Iroquois Confederacy in what is now western and central New York.

The expedition was largely successful, with more than 40 Iroquois villages razed and their crops and food stores destroyed. The campaign drove 5,000 Iroquois to Fort Niagara seeking British protection. The campaign depopulated the area for post-war settlement and opened up the vast Ohio Country. Some scholars argue that it was an attempt to annihilate the Iroquois and describe the expedition as a genocide,[2][3][4] although this term is disputed, and it is not commonly used when discussing the expedition.[5][6] Historian Fred Anderson, describes the expedition as "close to ethnic cleansing" instead.[7] Some historians have also related this campaign to the concept of total war, in the sense that the total destruction of the enemy was on the table.[8] Today this area is the heartland of Upstate New York, with thirty-five monoliths marking the path of Sullivan's troops and the locations of the Iroquois villages they razed dotting the region, having been erected by the New York State Education Department in 1929 to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the expedition.[9]

YouTube Encyclopedic

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Transcription

Overview

Led by Major General John Sullivan and Brigadier General James Clinton, the expedition was conducted during the summer of 1779, beginning June 18 when the army marched from Easton, Pennsylvania, to October 3 when it abandoned Fort Sullivan, built at Tioga, to return to George Washington's main camp in New Jersey. While the campaign had only one major battle, at Newtown (since the tribes evacuated ahead of the large military force) along the Chemung River in western New York, the expedition severely damaged the Iroquois nations' economies by destroying their crops, villages, and chattels. The death toll from exposure and starvation dwarfed the casualties received in the Battle of Newtown, in which an army of 3,200 Continental soldiers decisively defeated about 600 Iroquois and Loyalists. The deaths in this battle were 11 Continental soldiers, 12 Iroquois, and 5 British soldiers.[10]

In response to 1778 attacks by Iroquois and Loyalists on American settlements, such as on Cobleskill, Wyoming Valley and Cherry Valley, as well as Iroquois support of the British during the 1777 Battles of Saratoga, Sullivan's army carried out a scorched-earth campaign to put an end to Loyalist and Iroquois attacks. The American force methodically destroyed at forty Iroquois villages throughout the Finger Lakes region of western New York. The survivors fled to Fort Niagara on Lake Ontario at the mouth of the Niagara River.[11] The devastation created great hardships for the thousands of refugees who sheltered under British military protection outside Fort Niagara that winter, and many starved or froze to death, despite efforts by the British authorities to supply food and provide shelter using their limited resources.[10]

Background

When the Revolutionary War began, British officials, as well as the colonial Continental Congress, sought the allegiance (or at least the neutrality) of the Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Six Nations. The Iroquois eventually divided over what course to pursue. Most Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, and Mohawks chose to ally themselves with the British. Most Oneidas and Tuscaroras joined the American revolutionaries, thanks in part to the influence of Presbyterian missionary Samuel Kirkland. For the Iroquois, the American Revolution became a civil war.[12]

The Iroquois homeland lay on the frontier between the Province of Quebec and the provinces of New York and Pennsylvania. Following the October 1777 surrender of British General John Burgoyne's forces after the Battles of Saratoga, Loyalists and their Iroquois allies began to raid American settlements, as well as the villages of the Oneida. Working out of Fort Niagara, men such as Loyalist commander Major John Butler, Mohawk military leader Joseph Brant, and Seneca war chiefs Sayenqueraghta and Cornplanter led the joint British-Indigenous raids.[10]

Letter from John Sullivan, 1779

On May 30, 1778, a raid on Cobleskill by Brant's Volunteers resulted in the deaths of 22 regulars and militia.[13] On June 10, 1778, the Board of War of the Continental Congress concluded that a major Indian war was in the offing. Since a defensive war would prove inadequate, the board called for a expedition of 3,000 men against Fort Detroit and a similar thrust into Seneca country to punish the Iroquois. Congress designated Major General Horatio Gates to lead the expedition and appropriated funds for the campaign. Despite these efforts, the campaign did not occur until the following year.[10]

On July 3, 1778, Butler, Sayenqueraghta and Cornplanter led a mixed force of Indigenous warriors and Rangers in an attack on the Wyoming Valley, a rebel granary and settlement along the Susquehanna River near present-day Wilkes-Barre. Roughly 300 of the armed Patriot defenders were killed at the Battle of Wyoming, after which houses, barns, and mills were razed throughout the valley.[14][15]

In September 1778, a response to the Wyoming defeat was undertaken by Colonel Thomas Hartley who destroyed a number of abandoned Delaware and Seneca villages along the Susquehanna River, including Tioga.[15] At the same time, Joseph Brant led an attack on German Flatts in the Mohawk Valley, destroying numerous houses, barns and mills.[10] In October, further American retaliation was taken by Continental Army units under Lieutenant Colonel William Butler who destroyed the substantial Indigenous villages at Unadilla and Onaquaga on the Susquehanna River.[15]

On November 11, 1778, Loyalist Captain Walter Butler (the son of John Butler) led two companies of Butler's Rangers, a detachment of the 8th Regiment of Foot, about 300 Seneca and Cayuga led by Cornplanter, and a small group of Mohawks led by Joseph Brant, on an assault at Cherry Valley in New York. While the rangers and regulars blockaded Fort Alden, the Seneca rampaged through the village, killing and scalping 16 soldiers and 32 civilians, mostly women and children, and taking 80 captives.[15] In less than a year, Butler's Rangers and their Iroquois allies had reduced much of upstate New York and northeastern Pennsylvania to ruins, causing thousands of settlers to flee and depriving the Continental Army of food.[16]

The Cherry Valley Massacre convinced the Americans that they needed to take action. In April 1779, Colonel Goose Van Schaick led an expedition of about 550 officers and men against the Onondaga. About 50 houses and a large quantity of corn and beans were burned. Van Schaick reported that they took "thirty three Indians and one white man prisoner, and killed twelve Indians."[17]

When the British began to concentrate their military efforts on the southern colonies in 1779, Washington used the opportunity to launch an major offensive against the British-allied Iroquois. His initial impulse was to assign the expedition to Major General Charles Lee, however, Lee as well as Major General Philip Schuyler and Major General Israel Putnam were all disregarded for various reasons. Washington offered command of the expedition to Horatio Gates, the "Hero of Saratoga," but Gates turned down the offer, ostensibly for health reasons. Finally, Major General John Sullivan accepted command.[14]

Washington's issued his specific orders in a letter to Sullivan on May 31, 1779:

The Expedition you are appointed to command is to be directed against the hostile tribes of the Six Nations of Indians, with their associates and adherents. The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex as possible. It will be essential to ruin their crops now in the ground and prevent their planting more....

I would recommend, that some post in the center of the Indian Country, should be occupied with all expedition, with a sufficient quantity of provisions whence parties should be detached to lay waste all the settlements around, with instructions to do it in the most effectual manner, that the country may not be merely overrun, but destroyed....

But you will not by any means listen to overture of peace before the total ruin of their settlements is effected. It is likely enough their fears if they are unable to oppose us, will compel them to offers of peace, or policy may lead them, to endeavour to amuse us in this way to gain time and succour for more effectual opposition. Our future security will be in their inability to injure us the distance to which they are driven and in the terror with which the severity of the chastisement they receive will inspire....[18]

Expedition

Historic marker, Kirkwood, New York
Historical marker, Warrior Run Church, Pennsylvania

Washington instructed Gen. Sullivan and three brigades, including Morgan's Riflemen and one of the brigades consisting of General Edward Hand's "Light Corps", to march from Easton, Pennsylvania to the Susquehanna River in central Pennsylvania and to follow the river upstream to Tioga, now known as Athens, Pennsylvania. He ordered Gen. James Clinton to assemble a fourth brigade at Schenectady, New York, move westward up the Mohawk River Valley to Canajoharie, and cross overland to Otsego Lake as a staging point. When Sullivan ordered, Clinton's New York Brigade was to march down the Susquehanna to meet Sullivan at Tioga, destroying all Indian villages on his route. Sullivan's army was to have totaled 15 regiments and 5,000 men, but his Pennsylvania brigade entered the campaign more than 750 men short and promised enlistments never materialized. In addition, the third regiment of the brigade, the German Battalion, had shrunk by casualties, sickness, and desertion (the three-year term of enlistment of its soldiers had expired on June 27) to only 100 men and was parceled out in 25-man companies as flank protection for the expedition. Armand's Legion was recalled by Washington to the Main Army before the campaign began. Because of these and other shortages, Sullivan's army, including two companies of local militia totaling only 70 men, never exceeded 4,000 troops.

The main army left Easton on June 18, marching 58 miles to an encampment on the Bullock farm in the Wyoming Valley, which it reached on June 23. There they awaited provisions and supplies that had not been sent forward, remaining in the Wyoming Valley until July 31. The army marched slowly, paced by both the mountainous terrain and the flatboats carrying the army's supplies up the Susquehanna, and arrived at Tioga on August 11. They began construction of a temporary fort at the confluence of the Chemung and Susquehanna Rivers they called Fort Sullivan.

Sullivan sent one of his guides, Lt. John Jenkins, who had been captured while surveying the area in November 1777, with a scouting party to reconnoiter Chemung. He reported that the village was active and unaware of his presence. Sullivan marched the greater part of the army all night over two high defiles and attacked out of a thick fog just after dawn, only to find the town deserted. Brig. Gen. Edward Hand reported a small force fleeing towards Newtown and received permission to pursue it. Despite flankers, he had gone only a mile when his advance guard was ambushed, with six dead and nine wounded.[19] The entire brigade assaulted, but the ambushers escaped with minimal casualties. Sullivan's men spent the day burning the town and destroying its grain and vegetable crops. During the afternoon, the 1st New Hampshire Regiment of Poor's brigade was fired on, either from ambush or possibly by fire from other troops,[20] inflicting another soldier killed and five wounded.[21] Ambushes also occurred on August 15 and 17,[22] with combined casualties of two killed and two wounded. On August 23, the accidental discharge of a rifle in camp resulted in one captain killed and one man wounded.[22]

After two-weeks' portage of supplies, Clinton's brigade set up camp on June 30 at the south end of Otsego Lake (now Cooperstown, New York), where he waited for orders that did not arrive until August 6. The next day he began his destructive march of 154 miles (248 km) to Tioga along the upper Susquehanna, taking all of his supplies with him in 250 bateaux. The actions at Chemung made Sullivan suspicious that the Iroquois might be trying to defeat in detail his split forces, and the next day he sent 1,084 picked men under Brig. Gen. Enoch Poor north to locate Clinton and escort him to Fort Sullivan. The entire army assembled on August 22.

Map showing the route of the Sullivan Expedition in 1779

On August 26, the combined army of approximately 3,200 men and 250 pack horse teamsters left Fort Sullivan, garrisoned by 300 troops taken from across the army and left behind under Col. Israel Shreve of the 2nd New Jersey Regiment. Marching slowly north into the Six Nations territory in central western New York, the campaign had only one major battle, the Battle of Newtown, fought on August 29. It was a complete victory for the Continental Army. Later a 25-man detachment of the Continental Army was ambushed, and all but five were captured and killed at the Boyd and Parker ambush. On September 1, Captain John Combs died of an illness.[23]

Sullivan's forces reached their deepest penetration at the Seneca town of Chenussio (also called Little Beard's town, Beardstown, Chinefee, Genesee, and Geneseo), near the present Cuylerville, New York, on September 15, inflicting destruction on the Iroquois villages before returning to Fort Sullivan at the end of the month. Three days later, the army abandoned the fort to return to Morristown, New Jersey, and go into winter quarters. By Sullivan's account, forty Iroquois villages were destroyed, including Catherine's Town, Goiogouen, Chonodote, and Kanadaseaga, along with all the crops and orchards of the Iroquois.

Woodcut print of the Burning of Newtown

Immediately before the expedition, the Seneca war chief Sayenqueraghta gave a speech at Fort Niagara urging the Wyandot people to support "the King, our Father" and assist in the resistance against the Continental Army. Otherwise, he stated, "we must be a miserable People, and be left exposed to the Resentment of the Rebels, who, notwithstanding their fair Speeches, wish for nothing more, than to extirpate us from the Earth, that they may possess our Lands." Later, when the invasion was already in progress, Mohawk military leader Joseph Brant warned that the Patriots, whom he called "Bostonians", sought to commit genocide against the Iroquois, saying "their intention is to exterminate the People of the Long House."[3]

Appointed the British governor of Quebec in 1778, Frederick Haldimand, while kept informed of Sullivan's invasion by Butler and Fort Niagara, did not supply sufficient troops for his Iroquois allies' defense. Late in September, he dispatched a force of about 600 Loyalists and Iroquois, but by then, the expedition had successfully ended.

Brodhead's expedition

Further west, a concurrent expedition was undertaken by Colonel Daniel Brodhead. Brodhead left Fort Pitt on August 14, 1779, with a contingent of 600 men, regulars of his 8th Pennsylvania Regiment and militia, marching up the Allegheny River into the Seneca and Lenape country of northwestern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York. Since most native warriors were away to confront Sullivan's army, Brodhead met little resistance and destroyed about ten villages, including Conewango. Although initial plans called for Brodhead to eventually link up with Sullivan at Chenussio for an attack against Fort Niagara, Brodhead turned back after destroying villages near modern-day Salamanca, New York, never linking up with the main force. Washington's letters indicate that the cross-country trek east to the Finger Lakes region was considered too dangerous, limiting this minor expedition to a raid north.[24]

Teantontalago

The final operation of the campaign occurred on September 27. Sullivan sent a portion of Clinton's brigade directly back to winter quarters by way of Fort Stanwix, under Colonel Peter Gansevoort of the 3rd New York Regiment. Two days after leaving Stanwix, near their origination point of Schenectady, the detachment stopped at Teantontalago, the "Lower Mohawk Castle" (also known as Thienderego, Tionondorage, and Tiononderoga) and carried out orders to arrest every male Mohawk. Gansevoort wrote, "It is remarked that the Indians live much better than most of the Mohawk River farmers, their houses [being] very well furnished with all [the] necessary household utensils, great plenty of grain, several horses, cows, and wagons". The male population was incarcerated at Albany until 1780 and then released.

The action dispossessed the Mohawks of their homes. Local white settlers, homeless after the Iroquois raids, asked Gansevoort to turn the homes over to them. Both actions were criticized by Philip Schuyler, then a New York representative to the Continental Congress, because all the Mohawks of Lower Mohawk castle had rejected fighting with the British, and many supported the Patriot cause. Ironically, Schuyler had been Washington's preference for command of the expedition. Still, his relief of command of the Continental Army's Northern Department had led to private service with the army until he could resign his commission, which he did in April 1779.

Horseheads

A memorial to Sullivan's pack horses in the village of Horseheads, New York

Exhausted from carrying heavy military equipment, Sullivan's horses reached the end of their endurance on their return home. Just north of Elmira, New York, Sullivan euthanized his pack horses. A few years later, the skulls of these horses were lined along the trail as a warning to settlers. The area became known as "the Valley of Horses Heads" and is now known as the village and town of Horseheads, New York.[25]

Aftermath

Postage stamp, USA, 1929

Sullivan received the thanks of Congress on October 14, 1779.[26] On November 6, 1779 he informed George Washington that he intended to resign from the Continental Army, writing "My Health is too much impair’d." Sullivan elaborated further in a letter to Congress dated November 9, 1779: "My Heal⟨th⟩ is so much impair’d by a violent bilious dissorder, which seize⟨d⟩ me in the commencement, and continued during the whole of the western expedition." Congress accepted Sullivan's resignation on November 30, 1779.[27]

On September 21, 1779, there were 5036 Indigenous refugees at Fort Niagara. This number decreased to 3,678 by October 2, and by November 21, roughly 2,600 refugees still remained at Fort Niagara. Two Seneca villages west of the Genesee River had escaped destruction and absorbed some of the refugees. A small number relocated to Carleton Island at the eastern end of Lake Ontario. Some refugees returned to their razed villages, and some moved into hunting camps. After wintering at Fort Niagara, most of the remaining Seneca and Cayuga resettled at Buffalo Creek at the eastern end of Lake Erie.[10]

The winter of 1780 was especially hard with frequent storms and bitter cold. New York Harbour froze completely, and British soldiers were able to march across the ice from Manhattan to Staten Island. At Fort Niagara, the Iroquois refugees who had taken shelter there suffered greatly. The snow fell several feet deep and the temperature remained well below freezing for many weeks. Deer and other game died in large numbers. An unknown number of refugees died from hypothermia, starvation, or disease.[10]

Francis Goring, an employee of the trading firm Taylor & Forsyth, described the conditions at Fort Niagara in an October 1780 letter to his uncle:

I cannot help mentioning that last winter was the severest that was ever felt here. Our river was frozen over for seven weeks, so that horse and sley could pass, which was never known to be froze over before, owing to the great rapidity of the water from the falls. The snow in the woods eight feet on a level ground.[28]

In February 1780, Philip Schuyler, a member of the Continental Congress, sent four pro-rebellion Iroquois messengers to Fort Niagara. Little Abraham, a neutral Mohawk leader, told his listeners that the Continental Congress was ready to offer peace if the refugees were to return to their own country and embrace neutrality. The Seneca war chief Sayenqueraghta was indignant. Mohawk war leader Aaron Hill accused the four of being deceitful spies. Guy Johnson, the Superintendent of the British Indian Department, ordered the messengers imprisoned in Fort Niagara's "black hole," an unheated, unlit stone cell. Little Abraham died as a result of his harsh confinement. [14]

294 formerly rebel Onondagas, Tuscaroras, and Oneidas arrived at Fort Niagara in early July 1780 and declared their support for the British.[14]

The Sullivan expedition did not end Iroquois participation in the Revolutionary War. Although the destruction of their villages and crops forced the Iroquois to take refuge at Fort Niagara and put considerable strain on British resources, it also triggered devastating revenge attacks. John Butler reported that 59 war parties set out from Fort Niagara between February and September 1780.[14] A raid on Harpersfield in April 1780 led by Joseph Brant killed three and took 11 prisoners. In May 1780, Iroquois warriors accompanied Sir John Johnson and the King's Royal Regiment of New York in a raid that destroyed every building in Caughnawaga except for the church. In October, Johnson led a second expedition against the Schoharie and Mohawk valleys in which 200 dwellings were burned and 150,000 tons of grain destroyed. 265 Iroquois warriors including Brant, Cornplanter and Sayenqueraghta participated in this expedition during which 40 patriot militia were killed at the Battle of Stone Arabia. In total, the Mohawk and Schoharie valleys saw 330 men, women and children killed or taken prisoner, six forts and several mills destroyed, and over 700 houses and barns burned in 1780.[10]

According to Barbara Graymont, author of The Iroquois in the American Revolution, "the campaign of 1780 was an eloquent testimony to the ineffectiveness of Sullivan's expedition in quelling the Indian threat to the frontier."[10] Military historian Joseph Fischer describes the Sullivan Expedition expedition as a "well-executed failure."[29] In his conclusion to his journal of the campaign, Major Jeremiah Fogg noted: "The nests are destroyed, but the birds are still on the wing."[30]

The Iroquois were ignored in the peace negotiations between the United States and Britain that led to the 1783 Treaty of Paris. Beginning in 1784, the United States negotiated a series of treaties with the Iroquois that led to the cession of most of their traditional territory. In the October 1784 Treaty of Fort Stanwix, the Iroquois delegates relinquished their claims to the Ohio Country, and ceded a strip of land along the east side of the Niagara River as well as all of their territory west of mouth of Buffalo Creek. The Six Nations in council at Buffalo Creek, however, refused to ratify the treaty, denying that their delegates had the authority to surrender such large tracts of land.[10]

In October 1784, Sir Frederick Haldimand, the governor of the province of Quebec, signed a decree that granted 950,000 acres (380,000 ha) to the Iroquois in compensation for their alliance with British forces during the war. This tract of land, known as the Haldimand Tract, extended for six miles (9.7 km) to each side of the Grand River, from its source to Lake Erie.[31] In 1785, Joseph Brant led about 1,450 to the Haldimand Tract. Others, primarily Mohawk, settled with John Deseronto on the Bay of Quinte. A significant number of Seneca, Cayuga and Onondaga remained at Buffalo Creek.[32]

In 1788, at the First Treaty of Buffalo Creek, a syndicate of land speculators led by Oliver Phelps and Nathaniel Gorham purchased from the Seneca their territory between the Genessee River and Seneca Lake. The following year the Cayuga ceded to New York most of their traditional territory except for roughly 64,000 acres at the north end of Cayuga Lake. The November 1794 Treaty of Canandaigua established perpetual “peace and friendship” between the Iroquois and the United States, and acknowledged the sovereignty of the Iroquois within their lands. The 1797 Treaty of Big Tree saw the Seneca relinquish their rights to most of their remaining territory west of the Genesee River. 12 parcels of land were reserved for the Seneca including tracts at Buffalo Creek, Tonawanda, Allegany, and Cattaraugus.[33]

Ordering the "particulars of the expedition" would cement George Washington's identify among the Iroquois as Hanödaga꞉nyas (Town Destroyer). In 1790, Cornplanter told Washington, "When your army entered the Country of the Six Nations, we called you the Town-destroyer and to this day, when that name is heard, our women look behind them and turn pale, and our children cling close to the neck of their mothers."[34] The name had been given to Washington decades earlier during the French and Indian War, while Washington's great-grandfather John Washington had been given a similar appellation by the Susquehannock in 1675.[35]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b Soodalter, Ron (July 8, 2011). "Massacre & Retribution: The 1779–80 Sullivan Expedition". World History Group. Retrieved May 17, 2022.
  2. ^ a b c Koehler, Rhiannon (Fall 2018). "Hostile Nations: Quantifying the Destruction of the Sullivan-Clinton Genocide of 1779". American Indian Quarterly. 42 (4): 427–453. doi:10.5250/amerindiquar.42.4.0427. S2CID 165519714.
  3. ^ a b Ostler, Jeffrey (October 2015). "'To Extirpate the Indians': An Indigenous Consciousness of Genocide in the Ohio Valley and Lower Great Lakes, 1750s–1810". The William and Mary Quarterly. 72 (4): 587–622. doi:10.5309/willmaryquar.72.4.0587. JSTOR 10.5309/willmaryquar.72.4.0587. S2CID 146642401. Retrieved April 2, 2022.
  4. ^ Mann, Barbara Alice (March 30, 2005). George Washington's War on Native America. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. p. 52. ISBN 978-0275981778.
  5. ^ Leader, Matt (September 15, 2019). "Time to change? Effort seeks 'counter marker' for existing Sullivan-Clinton monument in Hemlock park". Livingston County News. Retrieved May 17, 2022. "I told her I objected to her… titling the counter marker as the Sullivan-Clinton Genocide," said Alden, speaking last week.
  6. ^ Birns, Nicholas (2007). "The Unknown War: The Last of the Mohicans and the Effacement of the Seven Years' War in American Historical Myth". James Fenimore Cooper Society – State University of New York at Oneonta. Retrieved May 17, 2022. The Sullivan expedition and the clearing-out of the Iroquois in central and western New York State—more like the Anglo-Saxons dispatching the Celts—something which more poetic souls still may lament, but which is not commonly called genocide.
  7. ^ Anderson, Fred (2004). George Washington Remembers: Reflections on the French and Indian War. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-7425-3372-1.
  8. ^ "A well-executed failure: the Sullivan campaign against the Iroquois, July–September, 1779". Choice Reviews Online. 35 (1): 35–0457-35-0457. September 1, 1997. doi:10.5860/choice.35-0457. ISSN 0009-4978.
  9. ^ Smith, Andrea Lynn; John, Randy A. (2020). "Monuments, Legitimization Ceremonies, and Haudenosaunee Rejection of Sullivan-Clinton Markers". New York History. 101 (2): 343–365. doi:10.1353/nyh.2020.0042. S2CID 229355901. Retrieved April 29, 2022.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Graymont, Barbara (1972). The Iroquois in the American Revolution. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-0116-6.
  11. ^ "The American Revolution". 1759–1796 Guardhouse of the Great Lakes. Old Fort Niagara. Archived from the original on October 12, 2006. Retrieved November 18, 2007.
  12. ^ Taylor, Alan (2007). The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution. New York: Vintage Books. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-4000-7707-6.
  13. ^ Barr, Daniel (2006). Unconquered: the Iroquois League at War in Colonial America. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 978-0275984663.
  14. ^ a b c d e Mintz, Max M. (1999). Seeds of Empire: The American Revolutionary Conquest of the Iroquois. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-5622-5.
  15. ^ a b c d Williams, Glenn F. (2005). Year of the Hangman: George Washington's Campaign against the Iroquois. Yardley, Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5941-6013-4.
  16. ^ Paxton, James (2008). Joseph Brant and his World: 18th Century Mohawk Warrior and Statesmen. Toronto: James Lormier & Company. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-5527-7023-8.
  17. ^ "The Van Schaick Expedition - April 1779". National Park Service. Retrieved March 9, 2024.
  18. ^ "From George Washington to Major General John Sullivan, 31 May 1779". Founders Online. National Archives. Retrieved March 6, 2024.
  19. ^ Eckert (1978), p. 406.
  20. ^ Eckert (1978), pp. 552–553, note 313.
  21. ^ Cruikshank (1893), p. 81.
  22. ^ a b Cook, Frederick (1887). "Journal of Thomas Grant". RootsWeb.com. Knapp, Peck & Thompson. Archived from the original on February 6, 2007. Retrieved November 14, 2007.
  23. ^ "Capt. (John?) Combs". USGenNet. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
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References

  • Boatner, Mark Mayo. Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0-8117-0578-1.
  • Calloway, Colin G. The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-47149-4 (hardback).
  • Calloway, Colin G. The Indian World of George Washington: The First President, the First Americans, and the Birth of the Nation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2017. ISBN 978-0190652166 (hardback).
  • Eckert, Allan W. (1978). The Wilderness War. New York: Little Brown & Company. ISBN 0-553-26368-4.
  • Cruikshank, Ernest (1893). The Story of Butler's Rangers and the Settlement of Niagara. Tribune Printing House.
  • Fischer, Joseph R. (2008) [1997]. A Well-Executed Failure: The Sullivan campaign against the Iroquois, July–September 1779. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-837-2.
  • Graymont, Barbara (1972). The Iroquois in the American Revolution. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0-8156-0083-6.
  • Mintz, Max M. Seeds of Empire: The American Revolutionary Conquest of the Iroquois. New York: New York University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8147-5622-0 (hardcover).
  • Taylor, Alan (2006). The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Boundary of the American Revolution. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1400077076.
  • Williams, Glenn F. Year of the Hangman: George Washington's Campaign Against the Iroquois. Yardley: Westholme Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-59416-013-9.
  • Journals of the military expedition of Major General John Sullivan against the Six Nations of Indians in 1779

External links

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