Outline of evolution

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to evolution:

A diagram showing the relationships among various groups of organisms

Evolutionary biology
Part of a series on
Darwin's finches by John Gould
Index Introduction Main Outline Glossary Evidence History
Processes and outcomes Population genetics Variation Diversity Mutation Natural selection Adaptation Polymorphism Genetic drift Gene flow Speciation Adaptive radiation Co-operation Coevolution Coextinction Divergence Convergence Parallel evolution Extinction
Natural history Origin of life Common descent History of life Timeline of evolution Human evolution Phylogeny Biodiversity Biogeography Classification Evolutionary taxonomy Cladistics Transitional fossil Extinction event
History of evolutionary theory Overview Renaissance Before Darwin Darwin Origin of Species Before synthesis Modern synthesis Molecular evolution Evo-devo Current research History of speciation History of paleontology (timeline)
Fields and applications Applications of evolution Biosocial criminology Ecological genetics Evolutionary aesthetics Evolutionary anthropology Evolutionary computation Evolutionary ecology Evolutionary economics Evolutionary epistemology Evolutionary ethics Evolutionary game theory Evolutionary linguistics Evolutionary medicine Evolutionary neuroscience Evolutionary physiology Evolutionary psychology Experimental evolution Phylogenetics Paleontology Selective breeding Speciation experiments Sociobiology Island biogeography Systematics Universal Darwinism
Social implications Evolution as fact and theory Social effects Creation–evolution controversy Theistic evolution Objections to evolution Level of support
Evolutionary biology portal Category
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In biology, evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological organisms over generations due to natural selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift. Also known as descent with modification. Over time these evolutionary processes lead to formation of new species (speciation), changes within lineages (anagenesis), and loss of species (extinction). "Evolution" is also another name for evolutionary biology, the subfield of biology concerned with studying evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth.

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(Music) The Five Fingers of Evolution. A thorough understanding of biology requires a thorough understanding of the process of evolution. Most people are familiar with the process of natural selection. However, this is just one of five processes that can result in evolution. Before we discuss all five of these processes, we should define evolution. Evolution is simply change in the gene pool over time. But what is a gene pool? And for that matter, what is a gene? Before spending any more time on genetics, let us begin with a story. Imagine that a boat capsizes, and 10 survivors swim to shore on a deserted island. They are never rescued, and they form a new population that exists for thousands of years. Strangely enough, five of the survivors have red hair. Red hair is created when a person inherits two copies of the red gene from their parents. If you only have one copy of the gene, you won't have red hair. To make this easier, we will assume that the five non-redheads are not carriers of the gene. The initial frequency of the red hair gene is therefore 50 percent, or 10 of 20 total genes. These genes are the gene pool. The 20 different genes are like cards in a deck that keep getting reshuffled with each new generation. Sex is simply a reshuffling of the genetic deck. The cards are reshuffled and passed to the next generation; the deck remains the same, 50 percent red. The genes are reshuffled and passed to the next generation; the gene pool remains the same, 50 percent red. Even though the population may grow in size over time, the frequency should stay at about 50 percent. If this frequency ever varies, then evolution has occurred. Evolution is simply change in the gene pool over time. Think about it in terms of the cards. If the frequency of the cards in the deck ever changes, evolution has occurred. There are five processes that can cause the frequency to change. To remember these processes, we will use the fingers on your hands, starting from the little finger and moving to the thumb. The little finger should remind you that the population can shrink. If the population shrinks, then chance can take over. For example, if only four individuals survive an epidemic, then their genes will represent the new gene pool. The next finger is the ring finger. This finger should remind you of mating, because a ring represents a couple. If individuals choose a mate based on their appearance or location, the frequency may change. If redheaded individuals only mate with redheaded individuals, they could eventually form a new population. If no one ever mates with redheaded individuals, these genes could decrease. The next finger is the middle finger. The M in the middle finger should remind you of the M in the word "mutation." If a new gene is added through mutation, it can affect the frequency. Imagine a gene mutation creates a new color of hair. This would obviously change the frequency in the gene pool. The pointer finger should remind you of movement. If new individuals flow into an area, or immigrate, the frequency will change. If individuals flow out of an area, or emigrate, then the frequency will change. In science, we refer to this movement as gene flow. All four of the processes represented by our fingers can cause evolution. Small population size, non-random mating, mutations and gene flow. However, none of them lead to adaptation. Natural selection is the only process that creates organisms better adapted to their local environment. I use the thumb to remember this process. Nature votes thumbs up for adaptations that will do well in their environment, and thumbs down to adaptations that will do poorly. The genes for individuals that are not adapted for their environment will gradually be replaced by those that are better adapted. Red hair is an example of one of these adaptations. Red hair is an advantage in the northern climates, because the fair skin allowed ancestors to absorb more light and synthesize more vitamin D. Thumbs up! However, this was a disadvantage in the more southern climates, where increased UV radiation led to cancer and decreased fertility. Thumbs down! Even the thumb itself is an adaptation formed through the process of natural selection. The evolution that we have described is referred to as microevolution, because it refers to a small change. However, this form of evolution may eventually lead to macroevolution, or speciation. Every organism on the planet shares ancestry with a single common ancestor. All living organisms on the planet are connected back in time through the process of evolution. Take a look at your own hand. It's an engineering masterpiece that was created by the five processes I just described, over millions and millions of years. Can you recall the five main causes of evolution from memory? If you can't, hit rewind and watch that part again. But if you can, give yourself or your neighbor a big five-fingered high five.

Fundamentals about evolution

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Introduction

Introduction to evolution – Non-technical overview of the subject of biological evolution
Evolution – Change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations
Evolution as fact and theory – Discussion of the meaning and usage of the terms evolution, fact and theory

Basic principles

Macroevolution – Evolution on a scale at or above the level of species
- Speciation – Evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species
  - Natural speciation
    - Allopatric speciation – Speciation that occurs between geographically isolated populations
    - Peripatric speciation – Speciation in which a new species is formed from an isolated smaller peripheral population
    - Parapatric speciation – Speciation within a population where subpopulations are reproductively isolated
    - Sympatric speciation – Evolution of a new species from an ancestor in the same location
  - Artificial speciation
    - Animal husbandry – Management, selective breeding, and care of farm animals by humans
    - Plant breeding – Humans changing traits, ornamental/crops
    - Genetic engineering – Manipulation of an organism's genome
  - Hybrid speciation – Form of speciation involving hybridization between two different species
- Despeciation – Loss of a species of animal due to its combining with another species
- Anagenesis – Gradual evolutionary change in a species without splitting
- Extinction – Termination of a taxon by the death of its last member
Microevolution – Change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population
- Artificial selection – Breeding used to develop desired characteristics
- Natural selection – Mechanism of evolution by differential survival and reproduction of individuals
  - Sexual selection – Mode of natural selection involving the choosing of and competition for mates
- Mutation – Alteration in the nucleotide sequence of a genome
- Gene flow – Transfer of genetic variation from one population to another
- Genetic drift – Concept in genetics

Subfields

Biology – Science that studies life
- Evolutionary biology – Study of the processes that produced the diversity of life
  - Evolutionary developmental biology – Comparison of organism developmental processes
- Genetics – Science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms
Biogeography – Study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time
Ecological genetics – Study of genetics in natural populations
Evolutionary biology – Study of the processes that produced the diversity of life
- Evolutionary developmental biology – Comparison of organism developmental processes
Evolutionary ecology – Interaction of biology and evolution
Evolutionary physiology – Study of changes in physiological characteristics
Evolutionary taxonomy – Form of biological classification
Experimental evolution – Use of laboratory and field experiments to explore evolutionary dynamics
Molecular evolution – Process of change in the sequence composition of cellular molecules across generations
Phylogenetics – Study of evolutionary relationships between organisms
Population genetics – Subfield of genetics
Paleontology – Study of life before the Holocene epoch
- Paleovirology – The study of ancient viruses
- Timeline of paleontology – Timeline of notable events in the sudy of ancient life
Systematics – Branch of biology

History

Charles Darwin – English naturalist and biologist (1809–1882)
- On the Origin of Species – 1859 book on evolution by Charles Darwin
- Caricatures of Charles Darwin and his evolutionary theory in 19th-century England
- Darwinism – Theory of biological evolution
History of evolutionary thought
- By period or event
  - Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment – Changes in evolutionary philosophies
  - Transmutation of species – 18th and 19th-century evolutionary ideas
  - 1860 Oxford evolution debate – Discussion about evolution in Oxford, England
  - Neo-Darwinism – Used to describe the combination of natural selection and genetics
  - The eclipse of Darwinism – Period when evolution was widely accepted, but natural selection was not
  - Evolutionary progress – Hypothesis that organisms have an innate tendency to evolve towards some goal
  - Scopes Trial – 1925 US legal case in Tennessee
  - Modern synthesis – Fusion of natural selection with Mendelian inheritance
    - Extended evolutionary synthesis – Set of theoretical concepts concerning evolutionary biology
  - Current research – Study of the processes that produced the diversity of life
- By field
  - Evolutionary developmental biology – Comparison of organism developmental processes
  - History of evolutionary psychology
  - History of molecular evolution – History of the field of study of molecular evolution
  - History of paleontology – History of the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the fossil record
Social effect of evolutionary theory – Effects on human societies of the scientific explanation of life's diversity

Evolutionary theory and modelling

See also Basic principles (above)

Population genetics

Population genetics – Subfield of genetics
Process
- Mutation – Alteration in the nucleotide sequence of a genome
- Selection – Mechanism of evolution by differential survival and reproduction of individualsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
  - Natural selection – Mechanism of evolution by differential survival and reproduction of individuals
    - Sexual selection – Mode of natural selection involving the choosing of and competition for mates
  - Artificial selection – Breeding used to develop desired characteristics
  - Ecological selection – Natural selection without sexual selection
- Gene flow – Transfer of genetic variation from one population to another
- Genetic drift – Concept in genetics
  - Small population size – Statistical effects of small numbers on a population
  - Population bottleneck – Effects of a sharp reduction in numbers on the diversity and robustness of a population
  - Founder effect – Effect in population genetics
  - Coalescent theory – Model for tracing the history of genetic variation
Variation
- Genetic variation – Difference in DNA among individuals or populations
  - Genetic diversity – Total number of genetic characteristics in a species
  - Gene frequency – The relative frequency of a variant of a gene at a particular locus in a population
  - Polymorphism (biology) – Occurrence of two or more clearly different morphs or forms in the population of a species
Key concepts
- Hardy-Weinberg law – Principle in genetics
- Genetic linkage – Tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together
- Identity by descent – Identical nucleotide sequence due to inheritance without recombination from a common ancestor
- Linkage disequilibrium – Allele association in population genetics
- Fisher's fundamental theorem – Principle relating genetic variance to fitness
- Neutral theory – Theory of evolution by changes at the molecular level
- Shifting balance theory – One version of the theory of evolution
- Price equation – Description of how a trait or gene changes in frequency over time
- Coefficient of relationship – Mathematical guess about inbreeding
- Fitness – Expected reproductive success
- Heritability – Estimation of effect of genetic variation on phenotypic variation of a trait
Effects of selection
- Genetic hitchhiking – Incidental selection of non-harmful genes which are close to a beneficial gene on the same DNA chain
- Negative selection (natural selection) – Selective removal of alleles that are deleterious
Related topics
- Microevolution – Change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population
- Evolutionary game theory – Application of game theory to evolving populations in biology
- Fitness landscape – Model used to visualise relationship between genotypes and reproductive success
- Genetic genealogy – DNA testing to infer relationships
- Quantitative genetics – Study of the inheritance of continuously variable traits

Evolutionary phenomena

Adaptation – Process that fits organisms to their environment
Adaptive radiation – A process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species
Coevolution – Two or more species influencing each other's evolution
Concerted evolution
Convergent evolution – Independent evolution of similar features
- List of examples of convergent evolution – Examples of separate lineages of organisms developing similar characteristics
Divergent evolution – Accumulation of differences between closely related species populations, leading to speciation
- Divergent evolution in animals – Accumulation of differences between closely related species populations, leading to speciation
Evolution of ageing – Study of the evolutionary development of ageing processes
Evolution of biological complexity – Tendency for maximum complexity to increase over time, though without any overall direction
Evolution of multicellularity – The development of organisms that consists of more than one cell from unicellular ancestors
Evolution of photosynthesis – Origin and subsequent evolution of the process by which light energy is used to synthesize sugars
Evolution of sexual reproduction – How sexually reproducing multicellular organisms could have evolved from a common ancestor species
Evolutionary arms race – Competition of sets of genes, traits, or species, that develop adaptations against each other
Evolutionary capacitance – Evolutionary biology hypothesis
Evolutionary fauna
Evolutionary pressure – Any cause that reduces reproductive success in a proportion of a population
Evolutionary radiation – Increase in taxonomic diversity or morphological disparity
Evolutionary trap – Cases in which an evolved, and presumably adaptive, trait has suddenly become maladaptive
Evolvability – Capacity of a system for adaptive evolution
Exaptation – Function of trait, shifted by evolution
Extinction – Termination of a taxon by the death of its last member
Fitness (biology) – Expected reproductive success
- Inclusive fitness – Measure of evolutionary success based on the number of offspring the individual supports
  - Kin selection – Evolutionary strategy favoring relatives
- Reproductive success – Passing of genes on to the next generation in a way that they too can pass on those genes
Genetic recombination – Production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent
Horizontal gene transfer in evolution – Evolutionary consequences of transfer of genetic material between organisms of different taxa
Human evolution (origins of society and culture) – Transition of human species to anthropologically modern behavior
Inversion (evolutionary biology) – Hypothesis in developmental biology
Mosaic evolution – Evolution of characters at various rates both within and between species
Parallel evolution – Similar evolution in distinct species
Quantum evolution – Evolution where transitional forms are particularly unstable and do not last long
Recurrent evolution – The repeated evolution of a particular character
Robustness (evolution) – Persistence of a biological trait under uncertain conditions
Speciation – Evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species

Modelling

Emergent evolution – Evolutionary biology
Epic of evolution – Evolutionary narrative that blends views
Evolution window – Narrow band of mutation step size that is conducive to significant evolutionary progress
Evolutionary dynamics – Study of mathematical principles in evolutionary biology
Evolutionary game theory – Application of game theory to evolving populations in biology
Evolutionary graph theory – Approach to studying how topology affects evolution of a population
Evolutionary invasion analysis – Mathematical modeling of phenotypic evolution
Largest-scale trends in evolution – Limits of increased complexity over time

Taxonomy, systematics, and phylogeny

Fundamentals

Taxonomy – Science of naming, defining and classifying organisms
- Alpha taxonomy – The discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species
- Biological classification – The science of identifying, describing, defining and naming groups of biological organisms
- Binomial nomenclature – System of identifying species of organisms using a two-part name
- Evolutionary taxonomy – Form of biological classification
- Catalogue of life – Online database and index of taxa
- Homonym (biology) – Scientific name that is identical in spelling to a name with a different type
- Integrated Taxonomic Information System – Authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes
- International Code of Zoological Nomenclature – Code of scientific nomenclature for animals
- International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants – Code of scientific nomenclature
- Linnaean taxonomy – Rank based classification system for organisms
- Phenetics – Attempt to classify organisms based on overall similarity
- Species 2000 – Federated taxonomic database system for species checklists
- Taxon – Grouping of biological populations
- Taxonomic rank – Level in a taxonomic hierarchy
- Type (biology) – Specimen(s) to which a scientific name is formally attached
- Species description – Formal description of a discovered species
Systematics – Branch of biology
- Cladogram – Diagram used to show relations among groups of organisms with common origins
- Phylogenetic tree – Branching diagram of evolutionary relationships between organisms
Phylogenetics – Study of evolutionary relationships between organisms
- Cladistics – Method of biological systematics in evolutionary biology
- Computational phylogenetics – Application of computational algorithms, methods and programs to phylogenetic analyses
- Common descent – Characteristic of a group of organisms with a common ancestor
- Evidence of common descent – Common ancestor evolutionary evidence
- Evolutionary grade – Non-monophyletic grouping of organisms united by morphological or physiological characteristics
- Lineage (evolution) – Sequence of populations, organisms, cells, or genes that form a line of descent
- Molecular phylogenetics – Branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences
- Most recent common ancestor – Most recent individual from which all organisms in a group are directly descended

Basic concepts of phylogenetics

Phylogenetic tree – Branching diagram of evolutionary relationships between organisms
Phylogenetic network – Graph used to visualize evolutionary relationships, including reticulation events
Long branch attraction – Systematic error in phylogenetics
Clade – Group of a common ancestor and all descendants
Grade – Non-monophyletic grouping of organisms united by morphological or physiological characteristics
Ghost lineage – Phylogenetic lineage that is inferred to exist but has no fossil record

Inference methods

Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics) – Optimality criterion in which the shortest possible tree that explains the data is considered best
Minimum evolution
Probabilistic methods
- Maximum likelihood estimation – Method of estimating the parameters of a statistical model, given observations
- Bayesian inference – Statistical method for molecular phylogenetics
Distance matrices in phylogeny – Matrices used in construction of phylogenetic trees
- Neighbor joining – Bottom-up clustering method for creating phylogenetic trees
- Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA) – Agglomerative hierarchical clustering method
- Least squares inference in phylogeny – Generation of phylogenetic trees based on an observed matrix of pairwise genetic distances
Three-taxon analysis – Cladistic based method of phylogenetic reconstruction

Current topics

PhyloCode, also known as International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature – proposed code of nomenclature for clades
DNA barcoding – Method of species identification using a short section of DNA
Molecular phylogenetics – Branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences
Phylogenetic comparative methods – Use of information on the historical relationships of lineages to test evolutionary hypotheses
Phylogenetic network – Graph used to visualize evolutionary relationships, including reticulation events
Phylogenetic niche conservatism – Tendency of lineage to retain ancestral traits
List of phylogenetics software – Compilation of software used to produce phylogenetic trees
Phylogenomics – Intersection of the fields of evolution and genomics
Phylogeography – Field of study
DNA phylogeny

Group Traits

Symplesiomorphy – An ancestral character or trait state shared by two or more taxa
Apomorphy – Two concepts on heritable traits
Synapomorphy – Two concepts on heritable traits
Autapomorphy – Distinctive feature, known as a derived trait, that is unique to a given taxon

Group Types

Monophyly – Property of a group of including all taxa descendant from a common ancestral species
Paraphyly – Type of taxonomic group
Polyphyly – Property of a group not united by common ancestry

Evolution of biodiversity

Biodiversity – Variety and variability of life forms

Origin and evolutionary history of life

Abiogenesis – Natural process by which life arises from non-living matter
History of life
Timeline of the evolutionary history of life

Evolution of organisms

Evolution of tetrapods

Evolution of tetrapods – Evolution of four legged vertebrates and their derivatives
- Evolution of dinosaurs – Archosaurian reptiles that dominated the Mesozoic EraPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
  - Evolution of birds – Derivation of birds from a dinosaur precursor
- Evolution of mammals – Derivation of mammals from a synapsid precursor, and the adaptive radiation of mammal species
  - Evolution of cetaceans
  - Evolution of horses
  - Evolution of primates – Origin and diversification of primates through geologic time
    - Evolution of humans – Evolutionary process leading up to the appearance of anatomically modern humans
      - Evolution of human intelligence – Evolution of the brain and the origin of language
      - Human evolutionary genetics – Study of differences between human genomes
      - Sexual selection in human evolution – Evolutionary effects of sexual selection on humans
      - Timeline of human evolution
    - Evolution of lemurs – History of primate evolution on Madagascar
  - Evolution of sirenians – Development from a Tethytherian ancestor and radiation of species
- Evolution of reptiles – Origin and diversification of reptiles through geologic time

Evolution of other animals

Evolution of brachiopods – The origin and diversification of brachiopods through geologic time
Evolution of cephalopods – Origin and diversification of cephalopods through geologic time
Evolution of fish – Origin and diversification of fish through geologic time
Evolution of insects – Development of insects from an ancestral crustacean and their subsequent radiation
- Evolution of butterflies – Origin and diversification of butterflies through geologic time
- Peppered moth evolution – Significance of the peppered moth in evolutionary biology
Evolution of molluscs – The origin and diversification of molluscs through geologic time
Evolution of spiders – Origin from a chelicerate ancestor and diversification of spiders through geologic time

Evolution of plants

Evolution of plants – The origin and diversification of plants through geologic time
- Evolutionary anachronism – Attributes of living species that arose due to coevolution with other now-extinct species
- Plant evolution – Subset of evolutionary phenomena that concern plants
- Plant evolutionary developmental biology – Study of developmental programs and patterns in plants from an evolutionary perspective
- Timeline of plant evolution – Chronological outline of major events in the development of plants

Evolution of other taxa

Evolution of fungi – Origin and diversification of fungi through geologic time
Evolution of viruses – Subfield of evolutionary biology and virology concerned with the evolution of viruses
- Evolution of influenza – Infectious disease
E. coli long-term evolution experiment – Scientific study

Evolution of cells, organs, and systems

Evolution of cells – Evolutionary origin and subsequent development of cells
Evolution of flagella – Origin of three known varieties of flagella
Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles – Middle ear bones evolved from jaw bones
Evolution of nervous systems – Origin and subsequent variation and development of neurons and neural tissues and organs
Evolution of snake venom – Origin and diversification of snake venom through geologic time
Evolution of the brain – Overview of the evolution of the brain
Evolution of the eye – Origins and diversification of the organs of sight through geologic time
- Evolution of color vision – Origin and variation of colour vision across various lineages through geologic time
- Evolution of color vision in primates – Loss and regain of colour vision during the evolution of primates
Immune system – Biological system protecting an organism against disease
Evolution of metabolism – Set of chemical reactions in organisms

Evolution of molecules and genes

Directed evolution – Protein engineering method
Error threshold (evolution) – Theoretical limit on rate of mutation
Gene-centered view of evolution – Theory of the "selfish gene"
Genome evolution – Process by which a genome changes in structure or size over time
Hologenome theory of evolution – Organism as host plus microbe community
Models of DNA evolution – Mathematical models of changing DNA
Molecular evolution – Process of change in the sequence composition of cellular molecules across generations
- History of molecular evolution – History of the field of study of molecular evolution
- Neutral theory of molecular evolution – Theory of evolution by changes at the molecular level
- Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution – Variant of one theory of evolution
Neutral network (evolution) – Set of genes all related by point mutations that have equivalent function or fitness
RNA-based evolution – Theory that RNA plays an independent role in determining phenotype

Evolution of behaviour

Co-operation (evolution) – Evolutionary process where groups of organisms work or act together for common or mutual benefits
Evolution of biparental care in tropical frogs – The evolution of the behaviour in frogs in which both the mother and father raise their offspring
Evolution of emotion – Study of the evolution of emotions
Evolution of empathy – Capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing
Evolution of eusociality – Origins of cooperative brood care
Monogamy in animals – Natural history of mating systems in which species pair bond to raise offspring
Reciprocal altruism – Form of behaviour between organisms
Reciprocity (evolution) – Mechanism favouring cooperative traits

Evolution of other processes

Evolution of ageing – Study of the evolutionary development of ageing processes
- Evolution of aging and mortality – Irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain an organism
- Origin of programmed cell death – Death of a cell mediated by intracellular program, often as part of development
Origin of avian flight – Evolution of birds from non-flying ancestors
Evolution of biological complexity – Tendency for maximum complexity to increase over time, though without any overall direction
Mosaic evolution – Evolution of characters at various rates both within and between species
Evolution of multicellularity – The development of organisms that consists of more than one cell from unicellular ancestors
Evolution of sexual reproduction – How sexually reproducing multicellular organisms could have evolved from a common ancestor species
- Mating type – Term in biologys
- Gamete differentiation/sexes – Sexual reproduction involving a large, female gamete and a small, male gamete
- Sex-determination – Biological system that determines the development of an organism's sex
- Life cycles/nuclear phases – Series of stages of an organism

Applications in other disciplines

Applications of evolution – Practical application of biological evolution
Biological anthropology – Branch of anthropology that studies the physical development of the human species
Evolutionary aesthetics – Evolutionary psychology theories
Evolutionary anthropology – Interdisciplinary study
Evolutionary computation – Trial and error problem solvers with a metaheuristic or stochastic optimization character
- Evolutionary algorithm – Subset of evolutionary computation
Evolutionary economics – A field in economics that considers economic evolution
- Kenneth Boulding's evolutionary perspective – Approach to economic theory based on an evolutionary model
Evolutionary epistemology – Ambiguous term applied to several concepts
Evolutionary ethics – Study of evolution on morality or ethics
Evolutionary linguistics – Sociobiological approaches to linguistics
Evolutionary medicine – Application of modern evolutionary theory to understanding health and disease
Evolutionary neuroscience – Study of the evolution of nervous systems
Evolutionary psychology – Branch of psychology
- Biosocial criminology – Psychosocial examination of crime
- Criticism of evolutionary psychology – Controversy in psychology
- Evolution of morality – Emergence of human moral behavior over the course of human evolution
- Evolution of schizophrenia – theories on how natural selection effected the mental disorder
- Evolutionary aesthetics – Evolutionary psychology theories
- Evolutionary approaches to depression
- Evolutionary developmental psychology – Psychology field concerned with Darwinian evolution
  - Evolutionary developmental psychopathology – Branch of psychology
- Evolutionary educational psychology
- Evolutionary ethics – Study of evolution on morality or ethics
- Evolutionary leadership theory – Analysis of leadership from an evolutionary perspective
- Evolutionary musicology – Subfield of biomusicology
- Evolutionary origin of religions – Emergence of religious behavior discussed in terms of natural evolution
- Evolutionary psychology of language – Study of the evolutionary history of language assuming it is a result of Darwinian adaptation
- Evolutionary psychology of parenting
- Evolutionary psychology of religion – Study of religious belief using evolutionary psychology principles
- Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary robotics
Evolutionary systems
Sociobiology – Subdiscipline of biology regarding social behavior
- Sociocultural evolution – Evolution of societies
- Cultural evolution – Evolutionary theory of social change
Universal Darwinism – Application of Darwinian theory to other fields

Evolutionary issues

Controversy about evolution

Creation–evolution controversy – Religious rejection of evolutionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
- Outline of the creation–evolution controversy – Overview of and topical guide to the creation–evolution controversy
Criticism of evolutionary psychology – Controversy in psychology
Evolutionary argument against naturalism – Philosophical argument
Level of support for evolution – Variation in support for the theory of evolution
Objections to evolution – Arguments that have been made against evolution
Social effects of evolutionary theory – Effects on human societies of the scientific explanation of life's diversity
Theology of creationism and evolution – Topic in theology

Religious and philosophical views of evolution

Acceptance of evolution by religious groups – General review of religious attitudes towards evolution
Conscious evolution – Hypothetical ability of the human species to choose what they will become
Buddhism and evolution – General review of religious attitudes towards evolution
Catholic Church and evolution – Attitude of the Catholic Church to evolution theory
Hindu views on evolution
Islamic views on evolution
- Ahmadiyya views on evolution – Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam universally accepts a process of divinely guided evolution
Jewish views on evolution – Jewish views on evolution includes a continuum of views about the theory of evolution
Mormon views on evolution
Theistic evolution – Views that religion is compatible with science

Influence of evolutionary theory

Social effects of evolutionary theory – Effects on human societies of the scientific explanation of life's diversity
See also Applications in other disciplines

Publications and organizations concerning evolution

Books

Evolution: The Modern Synthesis – book by Julian Huxley (grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley); one of the most important books of modern evolutionary synthesis, published in 1942
The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection – book by R.A. Fisher important in modern evolutionary synthesis, first published in 1930
Genetics and the Origin of Species – 1937 book by Ukrainian-American evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky
On the Origin of Species – seminal book by Charles Darwin concerning evolution by natural selection, first published in 1859
Systematics and the Origin of Species from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist – book by zoologist and evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr, canonical publication of modern evolutionary synthesis, first published in 1942 by Columbia University Press
The Structure of Evolutionary Theory – technical book on macroevolutionary theory by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould
Evolutionary Biology – 1983 book by Eli C. Minkoff

Journals

Evolution – Monthly journal in the science of evolutionary biology
Evolutionary Anthropology – Bimonthly review journal
Evolutionary Bioinformatics – Peer-reviewed scientific journal focusing on computational biology in the study of evolution
Evolutionary Psychology – Peer-reviewed open access academic journal
Journal of Evolutionary Biology – Bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal
Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research – Quarterly, peer reviewed, scientific journal
Trends in Ecology & Evolution (TREE) – Series of review journals

Organizations

European Society for Evolutionary Biology – Organisation to support the study of organic evolution
Society for the Study of Evolution – Professional organization of evolutionary biologists
Evolutionary psychology research groups and centers
I. M. Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry – Research facility in Saint Petersburg, Russia
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology – Research institute based in Leipzig, Germany
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology – Research institute located in Plön, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.
National Evolutionary Synthesis Center – Scientific research center in Durham, North Carolina
Systematic and Evolutionary Biogeography Association – international biogeographical community
Evolutionary Informatics Lab – American engineer and intelligent design advocate (born 1950)

Evolution scholars and researchers

Prominent evolutionary biologists

Charles Darwin – English naturalist and biologist (1809–1882)
Theodosius Dobzhansky – Russian-American geneticist and evolutionary biologist (1900–1975)
Richard Dawkins – English evolutionary biologist and author (born 1941)
Stephen Jay Gould – American biologist and historian of science (1941–2002)
J. B. S. Haldane – Geneticist and evolutionary biologist (1892–1964)
Julian Huxley – British evolutionary biologist, philosopher, author (1887–1975)
Thomas Henry Huxley – English biologist and comparative anatomist (1825–1895)
Ronald Fisher – British polymath (1890–1962)
Ernst Mayr – German-American evolutionary biologist (1904–2005)
Alfred Russel Wallace – British naturalist (1823–1913)
Sewall Wright – American geneticist (1889–1988)

External links

General information

Evolution on In Our Time at the BBC
"Evolution". New Scientist. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
"Evolution Resources from the National Academies". U.S. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
"Understanding Evolution: your one-stop resource for information on Evolution". University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
"Evolution of Evolution – 150 Years of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species"". National Science Foundation. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).

Experiments concerning the process of biological evolution

Lenski RE. "Experimental Evolution – Michigan State University". Retrieved July 31, 2013.
Algorithms, games, and evolution, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA

Online lectures

Carroll SB. "The Making of the Fittest". Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
Stearns SC. "Principles of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior". Archived from the original on March 23, 2011. Retrieved August 30, 2011.

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