Ionic Greek

Ionic or Ionian Greek (Ancient Greek: Ἰωνική, romanized: Iōnikḗ) was a subdialect of the Eastern or Attic–Ionic dialect group of Ancient Greek. The Ionic group traditionally comprises three dialectal varieties that were spoken in Euboea (West Ionic), the northern Cyclades (Central Ionic), and from c. 1000 BC onward in Asiatic Ionia (East Ionic), where Ionian colonists from Athens founded their cities.^[2] Ionic was the base of several literary language forms of the Archaic and Classical periods, both in poetry and prose.^[3] The works of Homer and Hesiod are among the most popular poetic works that were written in a literary form of the Ionic dialect, known as Epic or Homeric Greek. The oldest Greek prose, including that of Heraclitus, Herodotus, Democritus, and Hippocrates, was also written in Ionic. By the end of the 5th century BC, Ionic was supplanted by Attic, which had become the dominant dialect of the Greek world.^[2]

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DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Architecture is a language. And you know how when you learn a new vocabulary word, you start to notice it, for the first time, everywhere? Well, the same thing happens with architecture. When you learn a new architectural form, you start to see it everywhere. DR. BETH HARRIS: And that's especially true of the classical orders. Because these are what are, essentially, the building blocks of Western Architecture. And they've been used for 2,500 years. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: We're basically talking about styles of architecture that the ancient Greeks had developed mostly for their temples. And you're right, that we've continued to use. DR. BETH HARRIS: And we've got several contemporary examples up along the top. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: But what's important to remember is that it's just a fancy dressing, really, of a basic, ancient building system. DR. BETH HARRIS: So we've brought in Stonehenge, to illustrate that ancient, building system called post and lintel architecture. This is the most fundamental, most basic, oldest kind of architectural system. The posts are the vertical elements and they support a horizontal element called a lintel. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: And you know what? We still use this basic system when we nail two-by-fours together. And that's what the Greeks were doing. But they were doing in a much more sophisticated way. DR. BETH HARRIS: Right. They developed decorative systems. And that's what we're referring to when we use the term classical orders. There are three basic orders, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. There's a couple extra, but we're not going to go into those today. But we've listed them here for you, just so you know what they are, the Tuscan and the Composite. So the Doric and Ionic and Corinthian are illustrated, here, in this diagram. First the Doric, and the Ionic, and then, the last two are Corinthian. These are just slight variations of these three orders. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: And the Doric is really the most simple. The Ionic, a little bit more complicated. And then, the Corinthian, completely out of control. DR. BETH HARRIS: So let's start with the oldest order, the Doric order. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Right, and we think that this order began in the seventh century, on the mainland in Greece. And we're looking at an actual Greek temple that happens to be in Italy. But nevertheless, is just a great example of the Doric in the classical era. DR. BETH HARRIS: Let's start at the top, with the pediment. The pediment isn't, officially, part of the order. But since Greek temples had, at one end or the other, a pediment, we just thought we would name that for you. And that's that triangular space at the very top of the temple. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Right. These are gabled roofs. Sometimes they would be filled with sculpture. DR. BETH HARRIS: The next area, below the pediment, is actually, officially part of the order. And that's called the entablature. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: OK, so that would be the area from about here to here. DR. BETH HARRIS: And the top part of the entablature is called the frieze. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: OK, so only this part, right here, is known as the frieze. So in other words, this whole section. DR. BETH HARRIS: Right, and in the Doric order, it is decorated in a very specific way, using triglyphs and metopes. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Now, actually, if you look at the word triglyph, you'll notice that the prefix is tri. Just like tricycle, it means three. And its suffix, glyph, means mark. So a triglyph, literally, means three marks. And you can see patterns of three marks moving all the way across the frieze. DR. BETH HARRIS: And then, in between the triglyphs are spaces that are called metopes. And in ancient Greek architecture, these were often filled with sculpture. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Now the triglyphs we don't think are just arbitrary. We think that they probably came from a time when temples were built out of wood. And these would have been the ends of planks that would have functioned as beams in the temple. And they would have, of course, been supported directly over the columns. You'll notice that every other one, at least, is aligned directly over the columns. DR. BETH HARRIS: So as we move down the temple, the next area we come to is the Capital. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: And this is a Doric capital. It's very simple. It's got a flare. And then it's got a simple slab on top. DR. BETH HARRIS: So the Doric is the oldest, and most severe, and was associated, according to the ancient Roman architectural historian, Vitruvius, most masculine form. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: It is broad, it's not tall, and it feels heavy. DR. BETH HARRIS: It does. As we continue to move down, we come to the area that we commonly call the column but art historians call the shaft. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: And if you look closely, you can see that it is not entirely plain. There are, actually, vertical lines that move across the entire surface known as flutes. Now, in the Doric, a flute is very shallow. And really, what it is, is it's a kind of scallop that's been carved out the surface. DR. BETH HARRIS: And what fluting does is, it creates a nice, vertical, decorative pattern along the shaft. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Now, one of the other defining features of the Doric order is that, at the bottom of the shaft, there is no decorative foot. The shaft of the column goes straight into the floor of the temple. DR. BETH HARRIS: And you can see that really well in the detail on the lower right, where there is no molding there to make a transition. So let's have a look at what these look like in person. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Capitals are up high so we would never see a person next to them. But I think it's easy to not realize just how big they. But I snapped this terrific picture of you at the British Museum next to a capital that actually comes from the most famous Doric temple, on the Acropolis in Athens. DR. BETH HARRIS: Right, the Parthenon. And they really are massive. And this photo is good, also, for seeing-- in this case, a reconstruction-- but giving you a sense of the entablature with that frieze with triglyphs and metopes. And we've got an example, on the right, of a relief sculpture that was for one of the metopes on the Parthenon. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Right, so this metope, here, would have actually fit right in one of these squares. DR. BETH HARRIS: Let's talk about one last element that we find in Doric architecture. And that's something called entasis. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Now, this is a little tricky. Because I think most people assume that a column is straight up and down. That is, the sides of a column are parallel with each other, and the base of a column is just as wide as the area directly below the capitol. But in fact, the ancient Greeks didn't build their temples that way. DR. BETH HARRIS: No. It's fascinating to think about all the ways that the ancient Greeks are thinking about how to make their buildings beautiful, and speak of the realm of the gods. And so, when we look at an ancient Doric temple, we see that the shafts swell a little bit toward the center. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: So right about a third of the way down, they would be at their widest. And it would taper, ever so slightly, towards the bottom, and taper much more so as we move up the top. So that the narrowest point of the column shaft would be right at the top. And the widest part would be about one third of the way from the base. DR. BETH HARRIS: And so, the building has a sense of liveliness that I think it wouldn't have if the column was exactly the same width at the top as at the bottom. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Architectural historians have debated why the Greeks bothered to do this. Because this was expensive. This was difficult. It meant that every drum that makes up this column has to be an individual, unique piece. These could not be mass-measured and mass-produced. DR. BETH HARRIS: So you just used the word drum. So the columns are not, actually, carved from one piece of stone. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: And if you look very carefully at this photograph, you can just make out the seams between those drums. They would, also, have generally been a hole that would have gone through the center of each of these pieces. So that a piece of wood, sometimes, would actually string them together, almost like beads on a necklace. One of the other things that entasis does is to emphasize the verticality of the temple. Because they get narrower as they go further up, it seems as if the shaft of the column might actually be taller than it really is. Because of course, as things move away from us, they get smaller in scale. DR. BETH HARRIS: So the Greeks are thinking about human perception. They're thinking about how we see, not just an abstract idea of math and geometry, but actually, human experience, which says something about ancient Greek culture. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: One last detail-- the entasis gives the shaft of the column a sense of, almost, elasticity, that it is bearing the weight of the stone above it. DR. BETH HARRIS: It's really fascinating to think about all of these decisions that the Greeks are making as they build. So let's look at the Ionic order, which emerges shortly after the Doric order. Here's another building of the Acropolis, this is the Erechtheion. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: This is such a different aesthetic. There's such a sense of delicacy here. There is not that sense of mass, that sense of the muscularity of the buildings that we associate with the Doric. DR. BETH HARRIS: And in fact, Vitruvius the ancient Roman architectural historian, saw this as a more feminine order-- it's taller, it's thinner. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Now, one of the columns from this building in Greece is in the museum in London. We have some good photographs of it. DR. BETH HARRIS: And you can see the distinguishing feature really is at the top, at the capital, where we see these scroll-like shapes, also known as volutes. We also see a slightly different type of fluting. And we also, importantly see a base. Let's move to the Corinthian order. This looks really different and is the most decorative. And the distinguishing feature here is, again, the capital, where we see leaf-like shapes. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: They also have bases. They tend to be taller than the Doric, just like the Ionic. But they are highly decorative. There's a great myth about the origin of the Corinthian capital. DR. BETH HARRIS: It's a kind of fun story. Of course, we have no idea whether this is true. But the story is that there was a young girl who died. And her possessions were placed in a basket and put on top of her grave. Underneath that basket was a acanthus plant that began to grow. And because the heavy basket with the tile on top was on top, the acanthus leaves grew out the side. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Well, if we look at a Corinthian column, it really does look like that. DR. BETH HARRIS: It looks exactly like that. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: And so, it's a great myth, whether or not it's true. So the Corinthian order is the most complex. It includes both the scroll, that we would expect to see in the Ionic. DR. BETH HARRIS: The volutes. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: Right. But also these very complex leaf-like forms, which you can just make out here, which is actually from the acanthus leaf. And we have a photograph of an acanthus leaf right down there. DR. BETH HARRIS: And these grow wild so it makes sense. DR. STEVEN ZUCKER: What's important to remember is that the ancient Greeks, although they developed these three classical orders, were just the genesis. The Romans took these ideas over. And then, subsequently, people who've looked back to the classical tradition have borrowed from them yet again. And we still do this today. And there you have it. The Greek orders.

History

The Ionic dialect appears to have originally spread from the Greek mainland across the Aegean at the time of the Dorian invasions, around the 11th century BC, during the early Greek Dark Ages. According to tradition, the ancestors of Ionians first set out from Athens, in a series of migrations, to establish their colonies on the coast of Asia Minor and the islands of the Cyclades, around the beginning of the Protogeometric period (1075/1050 BC).^[4] Between the 11th and 9th century BC, the Ionians continued to spread around those areas. The linguistic affinity of Attic and Ionic is evident in several unique features, like the early loss of /w/, or the merger of /ā/ and /ē/, as seen in both dialects.^[4]

By the end of Archaic Greece and early Classical Greece in the 5th century BC, the central west coast of Asia Minor, along with the islands of Chios and Samos, formed the heartland of Ionia proper. The Ionic dialect was also spoken on islands across the central Aegean and on the large island of Euboea north of Athens. The dialect was soon spread by Ionian colonization to areas in the northern Aegean, the Black Sea, and the western Mediterranean, including Magna Graecia in Sicily and Italy.

The Ionic dialect is generally divided into two major time periods, Old Ionic (or Old Ionian) and New Ionic (or New Ionian). The transition between the two is not clearly defined, but 600 BC is a good approximation.

The works of Homer (The Iliad, The Odyssey, and the Homeric Hymns) and of Hesiod were written in a literary dialect called Homeric Greek or Epic Greek, which largely comprises Old Ionic, but with some admixture from the neighboring Aeolic dialect to the north,^[5] as well as with some Mycenean elements as a result of a long pre-Homeric epic tradition.^[2] This Epic Ionic was used in all later hexametric and elegiac poetry, not only by Ionians, but also by foreigners such as the Boeotian Hesiod.^[2] Ionic would become the conventional dialect used for specific poetical and literary genres. Ιt was used by many authors, regardless of their origin; like the Dorian Tyrtaeus, composing elegies in a form of Ionic.^[6] This ability of poets to switch between dialects would eventually temper regional differences, while contributing to the awareness of the Greekness that all dialects had in common.^[6] The poet Archilochus wrote in late Old Ionic.

The most famous New Ionic authors are Anacreon, Theognis, Herodotus, Hippocrates, and, in Roman times, Aretaeus, Arrian, and the Lucianic or Pseudo-Lucianic On the Syrian Goddess.

Ionic acquired prestige among Greek speakers because of its association with the language used by both Homer and Herodotus and the close linguistic relationship with the Attic dialect as spoken in Athens. This was further enhanced by the writing reform implemented in Athens in 403 BC, whereby the old Attic alphabet was replaced by the Ionic alphabet, as used by the city of Miletus. This alphabet eventually became the standard Greek alphabet, its use becoming uniform during the Koine era. It was also the alphabet used in the Christian Gospels and the book of Acts.

Ionic subdialects

On the basis of inscriptions, three subdialects of Ionic may be discerned:^[7]

1. Western Ionic, the dialect of Euboea and parts of Attica, like Oropos;

2. Central or Cycladic Ionic, the dialect of the Cycladic Islands;

3. Eastern Ionic, the dialect of Samos, Chios, and the west coast of Asia Minor.^[8]

Eastern Ionic stands apart from both other dialects because it lost at a very early time the /h/ sound (psilosis) (Herodotos should therefore properly be called Erodotos). The /w/ sound (digamma) is also completely absent from Eastern Ionic, but was sometimes retained in Western and Cycladic Ionic. Also pronouns that begin with /hop-/ in Western and Cycladic Ionic (ὅπου where, ὅπως how), begin with ok- (conventionally written hok-) in Eastern Ionic (ὅκου/ὄκου, ὅκως/ὄκως).

Western Ionic differs from Cycladic and Eastern Ionic by the sounds -tt- and -rr- where the other two have -ss- and -rs- (τέτταρες vs. τέσσαρες, four; θάρρος vs. θάρσος, bravery). Western Ionic also stands apart by using the form ξένος (xenos, foreigner, guest), where the other two use ξεῖνος (xeinos).^[9]

Cycladic Ionic may be further subdivided: Keos, Naxos, and Amorgos retained a difference between two /æ/ sounds, namely original /æ/ (written as Ε), and /æ/ evolved from /ā/ (written as Η); for example ΜΗΤΕΡ = μήτηρ < μάτηρ, mother. On the other Cycladic Islands this distinction was not made, Η and Ε were used there interchangeably.^[10]

Within Eastern Ionic, Herodotus recognized four subgroups (Histories, I.142), three of them apparently influenced by a neighbouring language:

a. The dialect of Miletus, Myus, and Priene, and their colonies, influenced by Carian;

b. The Ionic of Ephesos, Kolophon, Lebedos, Teos, Klazomenai, and Phokaia, and their colonies, influenced by Lydian;

c. The dialect of Chios and Erythrai and their colonies, influenced by Aeolic Greek;

d. The dialect of Samos and its colonies.

Differences between these four groups are not clearly visible from inscriptions, probably because inscriptions were usually ordered by a high social group that everywhere spoke the same kind of "civilized Ionic". However, local speech by the "man in the street" must have shown differences. An inkling of this may be witnessed in the language of Ephesian "beggar poet" Hipponax, who often used local slang (νικύρτας, σάβαυνις: terms of abuse; χλούνης, thief; κασωρικός, whorish) and Lydian loanwords (πάλμυς, king).^[11]

Phonology

Vowels

Proto-Greek ā > Ionic ē; in Doric, Aeolic, ā remains; in Attic, ā after e, i, r, but ē elsewhere.^[12]

Attic νεᾱνίᾱς neāníās, Ionic νεηνίης neēníēs "young man"
original and Doric ἁ (ᾱ) hā > Attic-Ionic ἡ hē "the" (feminine nominative singular)
original and Doric μᾱ́τηρ mātēr > Attic-Ionic μήτηρ mḗtēr "mother"

Proto-Greek e, o > East/Central Ionic ei, ou:^[note 1] compensatory lengthening after loss of w in the sequences enw-, erw-, onw-, orw-. In Attic and West Ionic, e, o are not lengthened.^[13] (“East” refers to the Ionic of Anatolia, “Central” refers to the Ionic of the Cyclades, and “West” refers to the Ionic of Euboea.)

Proto-Greek *kórwā^[14] > Attic κόρη kórē, East Ionic κούρη koúrē "girl"
*órwos > ὄρος óros, οὖρος oúros "mountain"
*ksénwos > ξένος xénos, ξεῖνος xeĩnos "guest, stranger"

East Ionic generally removes initial aspiration (Proto-Greek hV- > Ionic V-).^[15]

Proto-Greek *hāwélios > Attic hēlios, Homeric (early East Ionic) ēélios "sun"

Ionic contracts less often than Attic.^[16]

Ionic γένεα génea, Attic γένη génē "family" (neuter nominative plural)

Consonants

Proto-Greek *kʷ before o > Attic, West/Central Ionic p, some East Ionic k.

Proto-Greek *hókʷōs > East Ionic ὅκως hókōs, Attic ὅπως hópōs "in whatever way, in which way"

Proto-Greek *ťť > East/Central Ionic ss, West Ionic, Attic tt.^[17] This feature of East and Central Ionic made it into Koine Greek.

Proto-Greek *táťťō > Ionic τάσσω tássō, Attic τάττω táttō "I arrange"

Glossary

ἄβδης ábdês scourge ( Hipponax .98)
ἄεθλον áethlon (Attic ἆθλον athlon prize)
ἀειναῦται aeinaûtai archontes in Miletus and Chalcis (aeí always + naûtai sailors)
ἀλγείη algeíē illness (Cf.Attic ἀλγηδών algēdṓn pain) Algophobia
ἄμπωτις ámpōtis ebb, being sucked back, i.e. of sea (Attic anápōtis, verb anapínō) (Koine, Modern Greek ampotis)
ἄνου anou (Attic ἄνω ánō, up)
Απατούρια Apatoúria Pan-ionic festival ( see also Panionium )
ἀππαλλάζειν appallázein (Attic ἐκκλησιάζειν ekklesiázein gather together,decide) (Doric apellazein)
ἀχάντιον achántion (Attic ἀκάνθιον akánthion small thorn acanthus)
βάθρακοι báthrakoi (Attic βάτραχοι bátrachoi, frogs) in Pontus babakoi
βροῦκος broûkos species of locust (Attic akrís) (Cypriots call the green locust βρούκα broúka)
βυσσός byssós (Attic βυθός bythós depth, bottom, chaos)
γάννος gánnos Ephesian (Attic huaina (glanos Aristotle.HA594a31.) (Phrygian and Tsakonian ganos
εἴδη eídē (Attic ὕλη hýle forest) (Aeolic Greek eide also) (Greek Eidos)
ἐνθαῦτα enthaûta here (entoutha also) (Attic ἐνταῦθα entaûtha) (Elean ἐνταῦτα entaûta)
ἐργύλος ergýlos (Attic ἐργάτηςergátēs worker)
ἑστιᾶχος hestiâchos ionic epithet for Zeus, related to Hestia (oikourós, housekeeper, οἰκῶναξ oikônax)
ἠγός ēgós (Attic εὐδαίμων eudaímon happy) (Hesychius s.v. εὐηγεσίη) (τ 114)
ἠέλιος êélios (Attic hḗlios sun) (Cretan abelios)
Ἰαστί Iastí, "the ionic way" ( Ἰάονες, Iáones, Ionians; Ἰάς, Iás, old name of Attica, Strabo IX, 1.5 )
ἴδη ídē forested mountain (Attic δρυμῶν ὄρος drymôn óros) (Herodotus 4,109,2) (Mount Ida)
ἰητρός iētrós, iētēr (Attic iatrós, iatēr doctor)
ἴκκος íkkos (Attic ἵππος híppos, horse) (Mycenaean i-qo )
κάρη kárē head (Common kara) (Poetic kras)
κιθών kithṓn (Attic χιτών chitṓn)
κοεῖν koeîn (Attic νοεῖν noeîn to think) noesis
κοῖος koîos (Attic ποῖος poîos who?)
κύθρη kýthrē (Attic χύτρα chýtra cooking pot)
μύτταξ mýttax (Attic πώγων pṓgōn beard)
Ξουθίδαι Xouthidai Ionians from Xuthus
ὀδμή odmḗ (Attic ὀσμή osmḗ scent, smell)
πηλός pēlós thick wine, lees (Attic πηλός pelós mud, silt) (proverbial phrase mê dein ton Oinea Pêlea poiein, don't make wine into lees, Ath.9.383c, cf. Demetr.Eloc.171)
ῥηχίη rhêchíê flood-tide, loanword to Attic as ῥαχία rhachía (Homeric, Koine, Modern Greek πλημμυρίς plêmmurís -ída)
σαβακός sabakís (Attic σαθρός sathrís decayed) Chian
σάρμοι sármoi lupins (Attic θέρμοιthermoi} Carystian
σκορπίζω skorpízô scatter, disperse (probably from skorpios scorpion and an obsolete verb skerpô, penetrate)
ταῦροι^[18] taûroi (Attic tauroi bulls) (Ephesian word, the youths who acted as cupbearers at the local festival of Poseidon)
φοινικήια phoinikḗia grámmata Lydians and Ionians called so the letters
χλοσσός chlossós (Attic ἰχθύς ichthús fish)
ὦ οἰοῖ ô oioî exclamation of discontent ἐπιφώνημα σχετλιαστικὸν παρ' Ἴωσι

Notes

^ Among Greek dialects, Ionic was the fondest of long vowels and was thus considered especially suited to solo singing; the more austere, broad-sounding Doric was preferred in choral singing.

References

^ Roger D. Woodard (2008), "Greek dialects", in: The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. R. D. Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 51.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Ionic dialect | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
^ Barrio, María Luisa del (2013-09-24), "Ionic", Encyclopedia of Ancient Greek Language and Linguistics, Brill, retrieved 2023-11-29
^ ^a ^b Miller 2013, p. 139.
^ Horrocks 2009, p. 44.
^ ^a ^b Derks & Roymans 2009, p. 45.
^ Thumb, Albert; Scherer, A. (1959). Handbuch der griechischen Dialekte (2 ed.). Heidelberg: Carl Winter. p. II, 247.
^ Derks & Roymans 2009, p. 44.
^ Thumb & Scherer (1959), pp. 247, 264-265.
^ Thumb & Scherer (1959), pp. 251-252.
^ Hoffmann, O.; Scherer, A. (1969). Geschichte der griechischen Sprache. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co. p. I, 55.
^ Smyth, par. 30 and note, 31: long a in Attic and other dialects
^ Smyth, par. 37 note: Ionic compensatory lengthening after loss of w
^ κόρη. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
^ Smyth, par. 9 note: early loss of rough breathing in Ionic of Asia Minor
^ Smyth, par. 59 note: contraction in dialects
^ Smyth, par. 112, 78: ky, khy > tt; = ss in non-Attic dialects
^ Athenaeus Deipnosophists 10 425c

Sources

Christides, Anastasios-Phoivos (2007). A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521833073.
Giannakis, Georgios K. (2014). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greek Language and Linguistics. Brill. ISBN 9789004225978.
Miller, D. Gary (2013). Ancient Greek Dialects and Early Authors, Introduction to the Dialect Mixture in Homer, with Notes on Lyric and Herodotus. De Gruyter. ISBN 9781614512950.
Fisk, Benjamin Franklin (1830). "Ionic". A Grammar of the Greek Language. Hilliard, Gray, Little, and Wilkins.
Horrocks, Geoffrey (2009). Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1444318920.
Palmer, Leonard Robert (1996). The Greek Language. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0806128445.
Derks, Ton; Roymans, Nico (2009). Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity, The Role of Power and Tradition. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 9789089640789.

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