To install click the Add extension button. That's it.

The source code for the WIKI 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the Mozilla Foundation, Google, and Apple. You could also do it yourself at any point in time.

4,5
Kelly Slayton
Congratulations on this excellent venture… what a great idea!
Alexander Grigorievskiy
I use WIKI 2 every day and almost forgot how the original Wikipedia looks like.
Live Statistics
English Articles
Improved in 24 Hours
Added in 24 Hours
What we do. Every page goes through several hundred of perfecting techniques; in live mode. Quite the same Wikipedia. Just better.
.
Leo
Newton
Brights
Milds

Glossary of aerospace engineering

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This glossary of aerospace engineering terms pertains specifically to aerospace engineering, its sub-disciplines, and related fields including aviation and aeronautics. For a broad overview of engineering, see glossary of engineering.

YouTube Encyclopedic

  • 1/5
    Views:
    456 678
    22 206
    246 655
    24 894
    250 354
  • Aerospace Engineering Slander - Part 1
  • Aerospace Engineering! | USA Bachelors, Masters, Jobs, & Salary
  • To The Moon & Mars - Aerospace Engineering: Crash Course Engineering #34
  • Aerospace Engineer Salary 2022 (Aerospace Engineering Job Overview)
  • Aerospace Engineering Slander - Part 2

Transcription

A

B

This stabilizes the ballute as it decelerates through different flow regimes (from supersonic to subsonic).

  • Beam-powered propulsion – also known as directed energy propulsion, is a class of aircraft or spacecraft propulsion that uses energy beamed to the spacecraft from a remote power plant to provide energy. The beam is typically either a microwave or a laser beam and it is either pulsed or continuous. A continuous beam lends itself to thermal rockets, photonic thrusters and light sails, whereas a pulsed beam lends itself to ablative thrusters and pulse detonation engines.[28]
  • Bearing – In navigation, bearing is the horizontal angle between the direction of an object and another object, or between it and that of true north. Absolute bearing refers to the angle between the magnetic North (magnetic bearing) or true North (true bearing) and an object. For example, an object to the East would have an absolute bearing of 90 degrees. Relative bearing refers to the angle between the craft's forward direction, and the location of another object. For example, an object relative bearing of 0 degrees would be dead ahead; an object relative bearing 180 degrees would be behind.[29] Bearings can be measured in mils or degrees.
  • Bernoulli's principle – In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.[30]: Ch.3 [31]: 156–164, § 3.5 
  • Bi-elliptic transfer – is an orbital maneuver that moves a spacecraft from one orbit to another and may, in certain situations, require less delta-v than a Hohmann transfer maneuver. The bi-elliptic transfer consists of two half-elliptic orbits. From the initial orbit, a first burn expends delta-v to boost the spacecraft into the first transfer orbit with an apoapsis at some point away from the central body. At this point a second burn sends the spacecraft into the second elliptical orbit with periapsis at the radius of the final desired orbit, where a third burn is performed, injecting the spacecraft into the desired orbit.[32]
  • Big dumb booster – (BDB), is a general class of launch vehicle based on the premise that it is cheaper to operate large rockets of simple design than it is to operate smaller, more complex ones regardless of the lower payload efficiency.[33]
  • Bleed air – produced by gas turbine engines is compressed air that is taken from the compressor stage of those engines, which is upstream of the fuel-burning sections.
  • Booster – A booster rocket (or engine) is either the first stage of a multistage launch vehicle, or else a shorter-burning rocket used in parallel with longer-burning sustainer rockets to augment the space vehicle's takeoff thrust and payload capability.[34][35]
  • Boundary layer – In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is an important concept and refers to the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant. In the Earth's atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface. On an aircraft wing the boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous flow.
  • Buoyancy – In physics, buoyancy or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is greater than at the top of the column. Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in a fluid is greater than at the top of the object. This pressure difference results in a net upwards force on the object. The magnitude of that force exerted is proportional to that pressure difference, and (as explained by Archimedes' principle) is equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would otherwise occupy the volume of the object, i.e. the displaced fluid.

C

  • Cabin pressurization – is a process in which conditioned air is pumped into the cabin of an aircraft or spacecraft, in order to create a safe and comfortable environment for passengers and crew flying at high altitudes. For aircraft, this air is usually bled off from the gas turbine engines at the compressor stage, and for spacecraft, it is carried in high-pressure, often cryogenic tanks. The air is cooled, humidified, and mixed with recirculated air if necessary, before it is distributed to the cabin by one or more environmental control systems.[36] The cabin pressure is regulated by the outflow valve.
  • Cable lacing – is a method for tying wiring harnesses and cable looms, traditionally used in telecommunication, naval, and aerospace applications. This old cable management technique, taught to generations of linemen,[37] is still used in some modern applications since it does not create obstructions along the length of the cable, avoiding the handling problems of cables groomed by plastic or hook-and-loop cable ties.
  • Camber – the asymmetric curves on the top and bottom, or front and back, of an aerofoil
  • Canard – is an aeronautical arrangement wherein a small forewing or foreplane is placed forward of the main wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. The term "canard" may be used to describe the aircraft itself, the wing configuration or the foreplane.[38][39][40]
  • Centennial challenges
  • Center of gravity – A body's center of gravity is the point around which the resultant torque due to gravity forces vanishes. Where a gravity field can be considered to be uniform, the mass-center and the center-of-gravity will be the same. However, for satellites in orbit around a planet, in the absence of other torques being applied to a satellite, the slight variation (gradient) in gravitational field between closer-to (stronger) and further-from (weaker) the planet can lead to a torque that will tend to align the satellite such that its long axis is vertical. In such a case, it is important to make the distinction between the center-of-gravity and the mass-center. Any horizontal offset between the two will result in an applied torque.
  • Center of mass – In physics, the center of mass of a distribution of mass in space is the unique point where the weighted relative position of the distributed mass sums to zero, or the point where if a force is applied it moves in the direction of the force without rotating. The distribution of mass is balanced around the center of mass and the average of the weighted position coordinates of the distributed mass defines its coordinates.
  • Center of pressure – is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing a force to act through that point.
  • Centrifugal compressorCentrifugal compressors, sometimes called radial compressors, are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery.[41] They achieve a pressure rise by adding kinetic energy/velocity to a continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or impeller. This kinetic energy is then converted to an increase in potential energy/static pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser. The pressure rise in the impeller is in most cases almost equal to the rise in the diffuser.
  • Chord – is the imaginary straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil. The chord length is the distance between the trailing edge and the point on the leading edge where the chord intersects the leading edge.[42][43]
  • Clean configuration – is the flight configuration of a fixed-wing aircraft when its external equipment is retracted to minimize drag and thus maximize airspeed for a given power setting.
  • Cockpit – or flight deck, is the area, usually near the front of an aircraft or spacecraft, from which a pilot controls the aircraft.
  • Collimated beam – A collimated beam of light or other electromagnetic radiation has parallel rays, and therefore will spread minimally as it propagates. A perfectly collimated light beam, with no divergence, would not disperse with distance. Such a beam cannot be created, due to diffraction.[44]
  • Comet – is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process called outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail.
  • Compressibility – In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility[45] or isothermal compressibility[46]) is a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure (or mean stress) change. In its simple form, the compressibility may be expressed as
, where V is volume and p is pressure. The choice to define compressibility as the opposite of the fraction makes compressibility positive in the (usual) case that an increase in pressure induces a reduction in volume. t is also known as reciprocal of bulk modulus(k) of elasticity of a fluid.
  • Compression – In mechanics, compression is the application of balanced inward ("pushing") forces to different points on a material or structure, that is, forces with no net sum or torque directed so as to reduce its size in one or more directions.[47] It is contrasted with tension or traction, the application of balanced outward ("pulling") forces; and with shearing forces, directed so as to displace layers of the material parallel to each other. The compressive strength of materials and structures is an important engineering consideration.
  • Compressor map – is a diagram showing significant performance parameters for a rotating compressor, and how they vary with changing ambient conditions of pressure and temperature.
  • Computational fluid dynamics – (CFD), is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis and data structures to analyze and solve problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the free-stream flow of the fluid, and the interaction of the fluid (liquids and gases) with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved, and are often required to solve the largest and most complex problems.
  • Conservation of momentum – The total momentum of objects involved in a collision remains constant regardless of friction and permanent deformation that may occur during the collision. The law of conservation of momentum can be used to analyse the interactions between objects, even in the presence of friction and other non-conservative forces. Conservation of momentum is a consequence of Newton's laws of motion.
  • Constant speed drive – (CSD), is a type of transmission that takes an input shaft rotating at a wide range of speeds, delivering this power to an output shaft that rotates at a constant speed, despite the varying input. They are used to drive mechanisms, typically electrical generators, that require a constant input speed. The term is most commonly applied to hydraulic transmissions found on the accessory drives of gas turbine engines, such as aircraft jet engines. On modern aircraft, the CSD is often combined with a generator into a single unit known as an integrated drive generator (IDG).
  • Control engineering – or control systems engineering, is an engineering discipline that applies automatic control theory to design systems with desired behaviors in control environments.[48] The discipline of controls overlaps and is usually taught along with electrical engineering at many institutions around the world.[48]
  • Controllability
  • Crew Exploration Vehicle
  • Critical mach – In aerodynamics, the critical Mach number (Mcr or M* ) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach number at which the airflow over some point of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, but does not exceed it.[49] At the lower critical Mach number, airflow around the entire aircraft is subsonic. At the upper critical Mach number, airflow around the entire aircraft is supersonic.[50]
  • Cylinder stress – In mechanics, a cylinder stress is a stress distribution with rotational symmetry; that is, which remains unchanged if the stressed object is rotated about some fixed axis.

D

  • Damage tolerance – is a property of a structure relating to its ability to sustain defects safely until repair can be effected. The approach to engineering design to account for damage tolerance is based on the assumption that flaws can exist in any structure and such flaws propagate with usage.
  • Decalage – Decalage on a fixed-wing aircraft is the angle difference between the upper and lower wings of a biplane, i.e. the acute angle contained between the chords of the wings in question. Decalage is said to be positive when the upper wing has a higher angle of incidence than the lower wing, and negative when the lower wing's incidence is greater than that of the upper wing. Positive decalage results in greater lift from the upper wing than the lower wing, the difference increasing with the amount of decalage.[51]
  • De Laval nozzle – (or convergent-divergent nozzle, CD nozzle or con-di nozzle), is a tube that is pinched in the middle, making a carefully balanced, asymmetric hourglass shape. It is used to accelerate a hot, pressurized gas passing through it to a higher supersonic speed in the axial (thrust) direction, by converting the heat energy of the flow into kinetic energy. Because of this, the nozzle is widely used in some types of steam turbines and rocket engine nozzles. It also sees use in supersonic jet engines.
  • Dead reckoning – In navigation, dead reckoning is the process of calculating one's current position by using a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon known or estimated speeds over elapsed time and course.
  • Deflection – is the degree to which a structural element is displaced under a load. It may refer to an angle or a distance.
  • Deformation (engineering) – In materials science, deformation refers to any changes in the shape or size of an object due to an applied force (the deformation energy, in this case, is transferred through work) or a change in temperature (the deformation energy, in this case, is transferred through heat).
  • Deformation (mechanics) – in continuum mechanics is the transformation of a body from a reference configuration to a current configuration.[52] A configuration is a set containing the positions of all particles of the body. A deformation may be caused by external loads,[53] body forces (such as gravity or electromagnetic forces), or changes in temperature, moisture content, or chemical reactions, etc.
  • Delta-v – (literally "change in velocity"), symbolised as v and pronounced delta-vee, as used in spacecraft flight dynamics, is a measure of the impulse that is needed to perform a maneuver such as launch from, or landing on a planet or moon, or in-space orbital maneuver. It is a scalar that has the units of speed. As used in this context, it is not the same as the physical change in velocity of the vehicle.
  • Delta-v budget – is an estimate of the total delta-v required for a space mission. It is calculated as the sum of the delta-v required for the propulsive maneuvers during the mission, and as input to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, determines how much propellant is required for a vehicle of given mass and propulsion system.
  • Delta wing – is a wing shaped in the form of a triangle. It is named for its similarity in shape to the Greek uppercase letter delta (Δ). Although long studied, it did not find significant applications until the jet age, when it proved suitable for high-speed subsonic and supersonic flight.
  • Density
  • Departure resistance – is a quality of an aircraft which enables it to remain in controlled flight and resist entering potentially dangerous less-controlled maneuvers such as spin.
  • Derivative – The derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to change of the function value (output value) with respect to a change in its argument (input value). Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus. For example, the derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's velocity: this measures how quickly the position of the object changes when time advances.
  • Digital Datcom – The United States Air Force Stability and Control Digital DATCOM is a computer program that implements the methods contained in the USAF Stability and Control DATCOM to calculate the static stability, control and dynamic derivative characteristics of fixed-wing aircraft. Digital DATCOM requires an input file containing a geometric description of an aircraft, and outputs its corresponding dimensionless stability derivatives according to the specified flight conditions. The values obtained can be used to calculate meaningful aspects of flight dynamics.
  • Dihedral – Dihedral angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft. "Anhedral angle" is the name given to negative dihedral angle, that is, when there is a downward angle from horizontal of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft.
  • Disk loading – In fluid dynamics, disk loading or disc loading is the average pressure change across an actuator disk, such as an airscrew. Airscrews with a relatively low disk loading are typically called rotors, including helicopter main rotors and tail rotors; propellers typically have a higher disk loading.[54]
  • Displacement (vector)
  • Distance measuring equipment – (DME), is a radio navigation technology that measures the slant range (distance) between an aircraft and a ground station by timing the propagation delay of radio signals in the frequency band between 960 and 1215 megahertz (MHz). Line-of-visibility between the aircraft and ground station is required. An interrogator (airborne) initiates an exchange by transmitting a pulse pair, on an assigned ‘channel’, to the transponder ground station. The channel assignment specifies the carrier frequency and the spacing between the pulses. After a known delay, the transponder replies by transmitting a pulse pair on a frequency that is offset from the interrogation frequency by 63 MHz and having specified separation.[55]
  • DME – distance measuring equipment.
  • DO-178B
  • DO-254
  • Drag (physics) – In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid.[56] This can exist between two fluid layers (or surfaces) or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend on velocity.[57][58] Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow and the squared velocity for a turbulent flow. Even though the ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction, the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity.[59] Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the solid object in the fluid's path.
  • Drag coefficient – In fluid dynamics, the drag coefficient (commonly denoted as: , or ) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment, such as air or water. It is used in the drag equation in which a lower drag coefficient indicates the object will have less aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag. The drag coefficient is always associated with a particular surface area.[60]
  • Drag equation – In fluid dynamics, the drag equation is a formula used to calculate the force of drag experienced by an object due to movement through a fully enclosing fluid. The equation is:
is the drag force, which is by definition the force component in the direction of the flow velocity,
is the mass density of the fluid,[61]
is the flow velocity relative to the object,
is the reference area, and
is the drag coefficient – a dimensionless coefficient related to the object's geometry and taking into account both skin friction and form drag. In general, depends on the Reynolds number.

E

Given a domain and a once-weakly differentiable vector field which represents a fluid flow, such as a solution to the Navier-Stokes equations, its enstrophy is given by:[67]
Where . This is quantity is the same as the squared seminorm of the solution in the Sobolev space ::::.
In the case that the flow is incompressible, or equivalently that , the enstrophy can be described as the integral of the square of the vorticity ,[68]
or, in terms of the flow velocity,
In the context of the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations, enstrophy appears in the following useful result[20]
The quantity in parentheses on the left is the energy in the flow, so the result says that energy declines proportional to the kinematic viscosity times the enstrophy.

F

G

H

The equation has the property that, if u and its first time derivative are arbitrarily specified initial data on the line t = 0 (with sufficient smoothness properties), then there exists a solution for all time t.
  • Hypersonic speed – In aerodynamics, a hypersonic speed is one that greatly exceeds the speed of sound, often stated as starting at speeds of Mach 5 and above.[99] The precise Mach number at which a craft can be said to be flying at hypersonic speed varies, since individual physical changes in the airflow (like molecular dissociation and ionization) occur at different speeds; these effects collectively become important around Mach 5–10. The hypersonic regime can also be alternatively defined as speeds where specific heat capacity changes with the temperature of the flow as kinetic energy of the moving object is converted into heat.[100]
  • Hypoxia – is a condition[101] in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply at the tissue level. Hypoxia may be classified as either generalized, affecting the whole body, or local, affecting a region of the body.[102] Although hypoxia is often a pathological condition, variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during hypoventilation training or strenuous physical exercise.

I

J

K

  1. The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.
  2. A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.
  3. The square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of the length of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
The elliptical orbits of planets were indicated by calculations of the orbit of Mars. From this, Kepler inferred that other bodies in the Solar System, including those farther away from the Sun, also have elliptical orbits. The second law helps to establish that when a planet is closer to the Sun, it travels faster. The third law expresses that the farther a planet is from the Sun, the slower its orbital speed, and vice versa.
Isaac Newton showed in 1687 that relationships like Kepler's would apply in the Solar System as a consequence of his own laws of motion and law of universal gravitation.
  • Kessler syndrome – (also called the Kessler effect,[113][114] collisional cascading, or ablation cascade), proposed by NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler in 1978, is a theoretical scenario in which the density of objects in low Earth orbit (LEO) due to space pollution is high enough that collisions between objects could cause a cascade in which each collision generates space debris that increases the likelihood of further collisions.[115] One implication is that the distribution of debris in orbit could render space activities and the use of satellites in specific orbital ranges difficult for many generations.[115]
  • Kinetic energy – In physics, the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion.[116] It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. The same amount of work is done by the body when decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest. In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass m traveling at a speed v is . In relativistic mechanics, this is a good approximation only when v is much less than the speed of light.
  • Kite – is a tethered heavier-than-air or lighter-than-air craft with wing surfaces that react against the air to create lift and drag forces.[117] A kite consists of wings, tethers and anchors. Kites often have a bridle and tail to guide the face of the kite so the wind can lift it.[118] Some kite designs don't need a bridle; box kites can have a single attachment point. A kite may have fixed or moving anchors that can balance the kite. One technical definition is that a kite is “a collection of tether-coupled wing sets“.[119] The name derives from its resemblance to a hovering bird.[120]
  • Kutta condition – is a principle in steady-flow fluid dynamics, especially aerodynamics, that is applicable to solid bodies with sharp corners, such as the trailing edges of airfoils. It is named for German mathematician and aerodynamicist Martin Kutta.
Kuethe and Schetzer state the Kutta condition as follows:[121]: § 4.11 
A body with a sharp trailing edge which is moving through a fluid will create about itself a circulation of sufficient strength to hold the rear stagnation point at the trailing edge.
In fluid flow around a body with a sharp corner, the Kutta condition refers to the flow pattern in which fluid approaches the corner from above and below, meets at the corner, and then flows away from the body. None of the fluid flows around the sharp corner.
The Kutta condition is significant when using the Kutta–Joukowski theorem to calculate the lift created by an airfoil with a sharp trailing edge. The value of circulation of the flow around the airfoil must be that value that would cause the Kutta condition to exist.
  • Kutta–Joukowski theorem – is a fundamental theorem in aerodynamics used for the calculation of lift of an airfoil and any two-dimensional bodies including circular cylinders translating into a uniform fluid at a constant speed large enough so that the flow seen in the body-fixed frame is steady and unseparated. The theorem relates the lift generated by an airfoil to the speed of the airfoil through the fluid, the density of the fluid and the circulation around the airfoil. The circulation is defined as the line integral around a closed-loop enclosing the airfoil of the component of the velocity of the fluid tangent to the loop.[122] It is named after Martin Kutta and Nikolai Zhukovsky (or Joukowski) who first developed its key ideas in the early 20th century. Kutta–Joukowski theorem is an inviscid theory, but it is a good approximation for real viscous flow in typical aerodynamic applications.[123]

L

Lagrangian mechanics defines a mechanical system to be a pair of a configuration space and a smooth function called Lagrangian. By convention, where and are the kinetic and potential energy of the system, respectively. Here and is the velocity vector at is tangential to (For those familiar with tangent bundles, and
Given the time instants and Lagrangian mechanics postulates that a smooth path describes the time evolution of the given system if and only if is a stationary point of the action functional
If is an open subset of and are finite, then the smooth path is a stationary point of if all its directional derivatives at vanish, i.e., for every smooth
The function on the right-hand side is called perturbation or virtual displacement. The directional derivative on the left is known as variation in physics and Gateaux derivative in mathematics.
Lagrangian mechanics has been extended to allow for non-conservative forces.

M

In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of measurement of momentum is the kilogram metre per second (kg⋅m/s), which is equivalent to the newton-second.

N

The Navier–Stokes equations mathematically express conservation of momentum and conservation of mass for Newtonian fluids. They are sometimes accompanied by an equation of state relating pressure, temperature and density.[154] They arise from applying Isaac Newton's second law to fluid motion, together with the assumption that the stress in the fluid is the sum of a diffusing viscous term (proportional to the gradient of velocity) and a pressure term—hence describing viscous flow. The difference between them and the closely related Euler equations is that Navier–Stokes equations take viscosity into account while the Euler equations model only inviscid flow. As a result, the Navier–Stokes are a parabolic equation and therefore have better analytic properties, at the expense of having less mathematical structure (e.g. they are never completely integrable).
A newton is defined as 1 kg⋅m/s2, which is the force which gives a mass of 1 kilogram an acceleration of 1 metre per second, per second.
This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Isaac Newton called inductive reasoning.[158] It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("the Principia"), first published on 5 July 1687. When Newton presented Book 1 of the unpublished text in April 1686 to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him.
In today's language, the law states that every point mass attracts every other point mass by a force acting along the line intersecting the two points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.[159]
The equation for universal gravitation thus takes the form:
where F is the gravitational force acting between two objects, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects, r is the distance between the centers of their masses, and G is the gravitational constant.
Law 1. A body continues in its state of rest, or in uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted upon by a force.
Law 2. A body acted upon by a force moves in such a manner that the time rate of change of momentum equals the force.
Law 3. If two bodies exert forces on each other, these forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
The three laws of motion were first stated by Isaac Newton in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687.[161] Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems, which laid the foundation for Newtonian mechanics.[162]
  • Nose cone design – Given the problem of the aerodynamic design of the nose cone section of any vehicle or body meant to travel through a compressible fluid medium (such as a rocket or aircraft, missile or bullet), an important problem is the determination of the nose cone geometrical shape for optimum performance. For many applications, such a task requires the definition of a solid of revolution shape that experiences minimal resistance to rapid motion through such a fluid medium.
  • Nozzle – is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (especially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe. A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross-sectional area, and it can be used to direct or modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the stream that emerges from them. In a nozzle, the velocity of fluid increases at the expense of its pressure energy.

O

P

Define perpendicular axes , , and (which meet at origin ) so that the body lies in the plane, and the axis is perpendicular to the plane of the body. Let Ix, Iy and Iz be moments of inertia about axis x, y, z respectively. Then the perpendicular axis theorem states that[174]
This rule can be applied with the parallel axis theorem and the stretch rule to find polar moments of inertia for a variety of shapes.
If a planar object (or prism, by the stretch rule) has rotational symmetry such that and are equal,[175]
then the perpendicular axes theorem provides the useful relationship:

Q

R

S

T

The equation itself is:[184]
where
  • is the object's final velocity along the x axis on which the acceleration is constant.
  • is the object's initial velocity along the x axis.
  • is the object's acceleration along the x axis, which is given as a constant.
  • is the object's change in position along the x axis, also called displacement.
This equation is valid along any axis on which the acceleration is constant.

U

  • UFO – An unidentified flying object is any perceived aerial phenomenon that cannot be immediately identified or explained. On investigation, most UFOs are identified as known objects or atmospheric phenomena, while a small number remain unexplained.

V

Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude and direction are needed to define it. The scalar absolute value (magnitude) of velocity is called speed, being a coherent derived unit whose quantity is measured in the SI (metric system) as metres per second (m/s or m⋅s−1). For example, "5 metres per second" is a scalar, whereas "5 metres per second east" is a vector. If there is a change in speed, direction or both, then the object is said to be undergoing an acceleration.

W

  • Wave drag – In aeronautics, wave drag is a component of the aerodynamic drag on aircraft wings and fuselage, propeller blade tips and projectiles moving at transonic and supersonic speeds, due to the presence of shock waves.[194] Wave drag is independent of viscous effects,[195] and tends to present itself as a sudden and dramatic increase in drag as the vehicle increases speed to the Critical Mach number. It is the sudden and dramatic rise of wave drag that leads to the concept of a sound barrier.
  • Weight – In science and engineering, the weight of an object is the force acting on the object due to gravity.[196][197][198]
  • Weight function – is a mathematical device used when performing a sum, integral, or average to give some elements more "weight" or influence on the result than other elements in the same set. The result of this application of a weight function is a weighted sum or weighted average. Weight functions occur frequently in statistics and analysis, and are closely related to the concept of a measure. Weight functions can be employed in both discrete and continuous settings. They can be used to construct systems of calculus called "weighted calculus"[199] and "meta-calculus".[200]
  • Wind tunnels – are large tubes with air blowing through them which are used to replicate the interaction between air and an object flying through the air or moving along the ground. Researchers use wind tunnels to learn more about how an aircraft will fly. NASA uses wind tunnels to test scale models of aircraft and spacecraft. Some wind tunnels are large enough to contain full-size versions of vehicles. The wind tunnel moves air around an object, making it seem as if the object is flying.
  • Wing – is a type of fin that produces lift while moving through air or some other fluid. Accordingly, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic forces and act as airfoils. A wing's aerodynamic efficiency is expressed as its lift-to-drag ratio. The lift a wing generates at a given speed and angle of attack can be one to two orders of magnitude greater than the total drag on the wing. A high lift-to-drag ratio requires a significantly smaller thrust to propel the wings through the air at sufficient lift.
  • Wright Flyer – The Wright Flyer (the Kitty Hawk,[201][202] also known as Flyer I or 1903 Flyer) made the first sustained flight by a manned heavier-than-air powered and controlled aircraft—an airplane—on 17 December 1903.[203] Invented and flown by Orville and Wilbur Wright, it marked the beginning of the "pioneer era" of aviation.
  • Wright Glider – The Wright brothers designed, built and flew a series of three manned gliders in 1900–1902 as they worked towards achieving powered flight. They also made preliminary tests with a kite in 1899. In 1911 Orville conducted tests with a much more sophisticated glider. Neither the kite nor any of the gliders were preserved, but replicas of all have been built.

X

Y

Z

See also

References

  1. ^ Radiotelephony Manual. UK Civil Aviation Authority. 28 May 2015. ISBN 9780-11792-893-0. CAP413.
  2. ^ Wyer, S.S., "A treatise on producer-gas and gas-producers", (1906) The Engineering and Mining Journal, London, p.23
  3. ^ Perry, R.H. and Green, D.W, (2007) Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (8th Edition), Section 12, Psychrometry, Evaporative Cooling and Solids Drying McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-151135-3
  4. ^ Crew, Henry (2008). The Principles of Mechanics. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-559-36871-4.
  5. ^ Bondi, Hermann (1980). Relativity and Common Sense. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 3. ISBN 978-0-486-24021-3.
  6. ^ Lehrman, Robert L. (1998). Physics the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. pp. 27. ISBN 978-0-7641-0236-3.
  7. ^ a b "AOS, TCA, and LOS". Northern Lights Software Associates. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  8. ^ McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), C.B. Parker, 1994, ISBN 0-07-051400-3
  9. ^ a b NRCC (2008). "Space Vision System Helps Astronauts See in Space". National Research Council of Canada. Archived from the original on June 3, 2008. Retrieved February 13, 2008.
  10. ^ Sousa, V. C. (2011). "Enhanced aeroelastic energy harvesting by exploiting combined nonlinearities: theory and experiment". Smart Materials and Structures. 20 (9): 094007. Bibcode:2011SMaS...20i4007S. doi:10.1088/0964-1726/20/9/094007. S2CID 67767510.
  11. ^ Ellis, P. D. M. (1994). "Laser palatoplasty for snoring due to palatal flutter: a further report". Clinical Otolaryngology. 19 (4): 350–1. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2273.1994.tb01245.x. PMID 7994895.
  12. ^ Entropol. "Definition of Aeronautics". www.spacedictionary.com. Retrieved 2023-06-24.
  13. ^ Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, 2010. ISBN 978-0-470-75440-5.
  14. ^ "Aircraft - Define Aircraft at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 28 March 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  15. ^ "Different Kinds & Types of Aircraft". www.wingsoverkansas.com. Archived from the original on 21 November 2016.
  16. ^ "Definition of AIRSHIP". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  17. ^ Entropol. "Definition of Anemometer". www.spacedictionary.com. Retrieved 2023-06-24.
  18. ^ "NASA aeronautics guided tour".
  19. ^ "Glossary: Anticyclone". National Weather Service. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved January 19, 2010.
  20. ^ a b "the definition of apsis". Dictionary.com.
  21. ^ John, R. R., Bennett, S., and Connors, J. P., "Arcjet Engine Performance: Experiment and Theory," AIAA Journal, Vol. 1, No. 11, Nov. 1963. http://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/3.2103 Archived 2018-11-29 at the Wayback Machine
  22. ^ Wallner, Lewis E. and Czika, Joseph, Jr, ARC-Jet Thrustor for Space Propulsion, NASA Technical note TN D-2868, NASA Lewis Research Center, June 1965 (accessed September 8, 2014)
  23. ^ Kermode, A.C. (1972), Mechanics of Flight, Chapter 3, (p.103, eighth edition), Pitman Publishing Limited, London ISBN 0-273-31623-0
  24. ^ "Asteroids". NASA – Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
  25. ^ Federal Aviation Administration (2008). "Chapter 15: Navigation" (PDF). Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PDF). US Dept. of Transportation. ISBN 978-1-56027-783-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 June 2015. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
  26. ^ Civil Aviation Safety Authority (2005). "Operational Notes on Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) and Associated Automatic Direction Finding (ADF)" (PDF). Government of Australia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 May 2009. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
  27. ^ Graham, Jr, J.J. (December 1965). Development of Ballute / for Retardation of ARCAS Rocketsondes (PDF) (Report). Retrieved November 16, 2022.
  28. ^ Breakthrough (2018-05-29), Progress in beamed energy propulsion | Kevin Parkin, retrieved 2018-06-07
  29. ^ Rutstrum, Carl, The Wilderness Route Finder, University of Minnesota Press (2000), ISBN 0-8166-3661-3, p. 194
  30. ^ Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-15837-1.
  31. ^ Batchelor, G. K. (2000). An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge: University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66396-0.
  32. ^ Curtis, Howard (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students. Elsevier. p. 264. ISBN 0-7506-6169-0.
  33. ^ Schnitt, Arthur (1998) Minimum Cost Design for Space Operations.
  34. ^ "Rocket Staging". US: NASA. Archived from the original on June 2, 2016. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
  35. ^ "Solid Rocket Boosters". US: NASA. Archived from the original on July 27, 2020. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
  36. ^ Brain, Marshall (April 12, 2011). "How Airplane Cabin Pressurization Works". How Stuff Works. Archived from the original on January 15, 2013. Retrieved December 31, 2012.
  37. ^ "Cable Sewing Knots", Popular Mechanics, Hearst Magazines, 7 (5): 550, May 1905, ISSN 0032-4558, Every lineman should know how to sew these knots.
  38. ^ Wragg, D.; Historical Dictionary of Aviation, History Press (2008), Page 79.
  39. ^ Clancy, L.; Aerodynamics, Halsted (1975), Page 293.
  40. ^ Crane, Dale (1997), Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms (3rd ed.), Aviation Supplies & Academics, p. 86, ISBN 978-1-56027-287-8.
  41. ^ Shepard, Dennis G. (1956). Principles of Turbomachinery. McMillan. ISBN 978-0-471-85546-0. LCCN 56002849.
  42. ^ L. J. Clancy (1975), Aerodynamics, Section 5.2, Pitman Publishing Limited, London. ISBN 0-273-01120-0
  43. ^ Houghton, E. L.; Carpenter, P.W. (2003). Butterworth Heinmann, ed. Aerodynamics for Engineering Students (5th ed.). ISBN 0-7506-5111-3. p.18
  44. ^ "Introduction to Laser Technology". Melles Griot Catalog (PDF). Melles Griot. n.d. p. 36.6. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
  45. ^ "Coefficient of compressibility - AMS Glossary". Glossary.AMetSoc.org. Retrieved 3 May 2017.
  46. ^ "Isothermal compressibility of gases -". Petrowiki.org. 3 June 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2017.
  47. ^ Ferdinand Pierre Beer, Elwood Russell Johnston, John T. DeWolf (1992), "Mechanics of Materials". (Book) McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 0-07-112939-1
  48. ^ a b "Systems & Control Engineering FAQ | Electrical Engineering and Computer Science". engineering.case.edu. Case Western Reserve University. 20 November 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
  49. ^ Clancy, L.J. Aerodynamics, Section 11.6
  50. ^ E. Rathakrishnan (3 September 2013). Gas Dynamics. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 278. ISBN 978-81-203-4839-4.
  51. ^ NACA technical report No.269 Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine The Distribution of Loads Between the Wings of a Biplane Having Decalage (November 1927), p.18. Retrieved on 9 February 2009.
  52. ^ Truesdell, C.; Noll, W. (2004). The non-linear field theories of mechanics (3rd ed.). Springer. p. 48.
  53. ^ Wu, H.-C. (2005). Continuum Mechanics and Plasticity. CRC Press. ISBN 1-58488-363-4.
  54. ^ Keys, C. N.; Stepniewski, W. Z. (1984). Rotary-wing aerodynamics. New York: Dover Publications. p. 3. ISBN 0-486-64647-5. It is interesting to note that there has always been a strong intuitive association of rotary-wing aircraft with low disc loading which is reflected in the commonly accepted name of rotor given to their lifting airscrews.
  55. ^ Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Volume I – Radio Navigation Aids; International Civil Aviation Organization; International Standards and Recommended Practices.
  56. ^ "Definition of DRAG". www.merriam-webster.com. 19 May 2023.
  57. ^ French (1970), p. 211, Eq. 7-20
  58. ^ "What is Drag?". Archived from the original on 2010-05-24. Retrieved 2019-08-26.
  59. ^ G. Falkovich (2011). Fluid Mechanics (A short course for physicists). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00575-4.
  60. ^ McCormick, Barnes W. (1979): Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics. p. 24, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, ISBN 0-471-03032-5
  61. ^ Note that for the Earth's atmosphere, the air density can be found using the barometric formula. Air is 1.293 kg/m3 at 0°C and 1 atmosphere
  62. ^ L. G. Napolitano (22 October 2013). Applications of Space Developments: Selected Papers from the XXXI International Astronautical Congress, Tokyo, 21 – 28 September 1980. Elsevier Science. pp. 134–. ISBN 978-1-4831-5976-8.
  63. ^ a b Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, p. 194. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997. ISBN 1-56027-287-2
  64. ^ a b Aviation Publishers Co. Limited, From the Ground Up, p. 10 (27th revised edition) ISBN 0-9690054-9-0
  65. ^ Air Transport Association (10 November 2011). "ATA Airline Handbook Chapter 5: How Aircraft Fly". Archived from the original on 10 November 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
  66. ^ "Empennage". Oxford Dictionaries Online. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on July 22, 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
  67. ^ Foiaş, Ciprian (2001). Navier-Stokes equations and turbulence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 28–29. ISBN 0-511-03936-0. OCLC 56416088.
  68. ^ Doering, C. R. and Gibbon, J. D. (1995). Applied Analysis of the Navier-Stokes Equations, p. 11, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 052144568-X.
  69. ^ Encyclopaedia of Physics (second Edition), R.G. Lerner, G.L. Trigg, VHC Publishers, 1991, ISBN (Verlagsgesellschaft) 3-527-26954-1 (VHC Inc.) 0-89573-752-3
  70. ^ Analytical Mechanics, L.N. Hand, J.D. Finch, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-57572-0
  71. ^ Novi Commentarii academiae scientiarum Petropolitanae 20, 1776, pp. 189–207 (E478) PDF
  72. ^ Gablehouse, Charles (1969) Helicopters and Autogiros: a History of Rotating-Wing and V/STOL Aviation. Lippincott. p.206
  73. ^ Stengel, Robert F. (2010), Aircraft Flight Dynamics (MAE 331) course summary, retrieved November 16, 2011
  74. ^ Flightwise - Volume 2 - Aircraft Stability And Control, Chris Carpenter 1997, Airlife Publishing Ltd., ISBN 1 85310 870 7, p.145
  75. ^ Depending on the vehicle's mass distribution, the effects of gravitational force may also be affected by attitude (and vice versa), but to a much lesser extent.
  76. ^ "Fluid | Definition, Models, Newtonian Fluids, Non-Newtonian Fluids, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
  77. ^ a b White, Frank M. (2011). Fluid Mechanics (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-352934-9.
  78. ^ a b "Fluid Mechanics/Fluid Statics/mentals of Fluid Statics - Wikibooks, open books for an open world". en.wikibooks.org. Retrieved 2021-04-01.
  79. ^ a b "Hydrostatics". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
  80. ^ "An Assessment of Flight Crew Experiences with FANS-1 ATC Data Link" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-10-17. Retrieved 2021-09-23.
  81. ^ Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, p. 224. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997. ISBN 1-56027-287-2.
  82. ^ Sparke, L. S.; Gallagher, J. S. III (2000). Galaxies in the Universe: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59740-1. Archived from the original on March 24, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2018.
  83. ^ Hupp, E.; Roy, S.; Watzke, M. (August 12, 2006). "NASA Finds Direct Proof of Dark Matter". NASA. Archived from the original on March 28, 2020. Retrieved April 17, 2007.
  84. ^ Uson, J. M.; Boughn, S. P.; Kuhn, J. R. (1990). "The central galaxy in Abell 2029 – An old supergiant". Science. 250 (4980): 539–540. Bibcode:1990Sci...250..539U. doi:10.1126/science.250.4980.539. PMID 17751483. S2CID 23362384.
  85. ^ Hoover, A. (June 16, 2003). "UF Astronomers: Universe Slightly Simpler Than Expected". Hubble News Desk. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011. Retrieved March 4, 2011. Based upon: Graham, A. W.; Guzman, R. (2003). "HST Photometry of Dwarf Elliptical Galaxies in Coma, and an Explanation for the Alleged Structural Dichotomy between Dwarf and Bright Elliptical Galaxies". The Astronomical Journal. 125 (6): 2936–2950. arXiv:astro-ph/0303391. Bibcode:2003AJ....125.2936G. doi:10.1086/374992. S2CID 13284968.
  86. ^ Jarrett, T. H. "Near-Infrared Galaxy Morphology Atlas". California Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on August 2, 2012. Retrieved January 9, 2007.
  87. ^ FAA Glider handbook Archived 2009-02-06 at the Wayback Machine
  88. ^ (1) "GPS: Global Positioning System (or Navstar Global Positioning System)" Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) Performance Standard, Section B.3, Abbreviations and Acronyms.
    (2) "GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM WIDE AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (WAAS) PERFORMANCE STANDARD" (PDF). January 3, 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 27, 2017.
  89. ^ "Global Positioning System Standard Positioning Service Performance Standard : 4th Edition, September 2008" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved April 21, 2017.
  90. ^ "What is a GPS?". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on January 31, 2018. Retrieved January 28, 2018.
  91. ^ E.M. Cliff. "Goddard Problem (slides)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-06-24. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
  92. ^ Boris Garfinkel. A Solution of the Goddard Problem (Report). Archived from the original on September 27, 2021.
  93. ^ "2018 CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-20.
  94. ^ "Section 1: Environment, Chapter 4: Trajectories". Basics of Space Flight. NASA. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
  95. ^ "dict.cc dictionary :: gravitas :: English-Latin translation". Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
  96. ^ Comins, Neil F.; Kaufmann, William J. (2008). Discovering the Universe: From the Stars to the Planets. MacMillan. p. 347. Bibcode:2009dufs.book.....C. ISBN 978-1429230421. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
  97. ^ Hofer, Richard R. (June 2004). Development and Characterization of High-Efficiency, High-Specific Impulse Xenon Hall Thrusters. NASA/CR—2004-21309 (Report). NASA STI Program. hdl:2060/20040084644.
  98. ^ "GIRD-09". Encyclopedia Astronautix. Archived from the original on December 21, 2016. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
  99. ^ Galison, P.; Roland, A., eds. (2000). Atmospheric Flight in the Twentieth Century. Springer. p. 90. ISBN 978-94-011-4379-0.
  100. ^ "Specific Heat Capacity, Calorically Imperfect Gas". NASA. Retrieved 2019-12-27.
  101. ^ Samuel, Jacob; Franklin, Cory (2008). Common Surgical Diseases. New York: Springer. pp. 391–94. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-75246-4_97. ISBN 978-0387752457.
  102. ^ Das, K. K., Honnutagi, R., Mullur, L., Reddy, R. C., Das, S., Majid, D. S. A., & Biradar, M. S. (2019). "Heavy metals and low-oxygen microenvironment – its impact on liver metabolism and dietary supplementation". In Dietary Interventions in Liver Disease. pp. 315–32. Academic Press.
  103. ^ a b Clancy, L.J. (1975), Aerodynamics, Section 3.9, Pitman Publishing Limited, London. ISBN 0-273-01120-0
  104. ^ Ross, S. D. (2006). "The Interplanetary Transport Network" (PDF). American Scientist. 94 (3): 230–237. doi:10.1511/2006.59.994. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-20. Retrieved 2021-09-30.
  105. ^ "The Interplanetary Superhighway; Shane Ross; Virginia Tech". Archived from the original on 2019-06-15. Retrieved 2021-09-30.
  106. ^ Interplanetary Flight: an introduction to astronautics. London: Temple Press, Arthur C. Clarke, 1950
  107. ^ Mauldin, John H. (May 1992). Prospects for interstellar travel. Published for the American Astronautical Society by Univelt. Interstellar travel.
  108. ^ "ISRO – Vision and Mission Statements". ISRO. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
  109. ^ TE Narasimhan (2014-01-07). "ISRO on cloud nine as India joins "cryo club"". Business Standard. Chennai. Retrieved 2021-03-12.
  110. ^ Harvey, Brian; Smid, Henk H. F.; Pirard, Theo (2011). Emerging Space Powers: The New Space Programs of Asia, the Middle East and South-America. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 144–. ISBN 978-1-4419-0874-2. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
  111. ^ Hitchens, Frank (2015). The Encyclopedia of Aerodynamics. Andrews UK Limited. ISBN 9781785383250. Retrieved 13 September 2017.
  112. ^ Administration, Federal Aviation (2017). Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. ISBN 9781510726185. Retrieved 13 September 2017.
  113. ^ Stenger, Richard (2002-05-03). "Scientist: Space weapons pose debris threat". CNN.com. Archived from the original on 2012-09-30. Retrieved 2011-03-17.
  114. ^ Olson, Steve (July 1998). "The Danger of Space Junk – 98.07". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2020-06-18 – via TheAtlantic.com.
  115. ^ a b Kessler, Donald J.; Cour-Palais, Burton G. (1978). "Collision Frequency of Artificial Satellites: The Creation of a Debris Belt". Journal of Geophysical Research. 83 (A6): 2637–2646. Bibcode:1978JGR....83.2637K. doi:10.1029/JA083iA06p02637.
  116. ^ Jain, Mahesh C. (2009). Textbook of Engineering Physics (Part I). PHI Learning Pvt. p. 9. ISBN 978-81-203-3862-3. Archived from the original on 2020-08-04. Retrieved 2018-06-21., Chapter 1, p. 9 Archived 2020-08-04 at the Wayback Machine
  117. ^ Kytoon
  118. ^ Eden, Maxwell (2002). The Magnificent Book of Kites: Explorations in Design, Construction, Enjoyment & Flight. New York: Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. p. 18. ISBN 9781402700941.
  119. ^ "What is a kite? A kite is ________. Definition of "kite" in the world".
  120. ^ "Etmology online".
  121. ^ A.M. Kuethe and J.D. Schetzer (1959) Foundations of Aerodynamics, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons ISBN 0-471-50952-3
  122. ^ Anderson, J. D. Jr. (1989). "Pressure, Temperature, and Density Altitudes". Introduction to Flight (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 100–103. ISBN 0-07-001641-0.
  123. ^ Liu, L. Q.; Zhu, J. Y.; Wu, J. Z. (2015). "Lift and drag in two-dimensional steady viscous and compressible flow". Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 784: 304–341. Bibcode:2015JFM...784..304L. doi:10.1017/jfm.2015.584. S2CID 125643946.
  124. ^ Weisstein, Eric. "Lagrange Points". Eric Weisstein's World of Physics.
  125. ^ Dr Claude Phipps (2011). "Removing Orbital Debris with Lasers". Advances in Space Research. 49 (9): 1283–1300. arXiv:1110.3835. Bibcode:2012AdSpR..49.1283P. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2012.02.003.
  126. ^ Shen, Shuangyan; Jin, Xing; Hao, Chang (2014-08-01). "Cleaning space debris with a space-based laser system". Chinese Journal of Aeronautics. 27 (4): 805–811. doi:10.1016/j.cja.2014.05.002. ISSN 1000-9361.
  127. ^ Wen, Quan; Yang, Liwei; Zhao, Shanghong; Fang, Yingwu; Wang, Yi; Hou, Rui (2018-02-01). "Impacts of orbital elements of space-based laser station on small scale space debris removal". Optik. 154: 83–92. Bibcode:2018Optik.154...83W. doi:10.1016/j.ijleo.2017.10.008. ISSN 0030-4026.
  128. ^ Lin; Singer (February 15, 2018). "Is China's space laser for real?". Popular Science. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  129. ^ Venton, Danielle (May 12, 2015). "The Mad Plan to Clean Up Space Junk With a Laser Cannon". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  130. ^ Walsh, Kris. "Launch Period vs. Launch Window". Genesis Mission. NASA JPL. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
  131. ^ Sergeyevsky, Andrey (September 15, 1983). Interplanetary Mission Design Handbook, Volume I, Part 2 (Report). NASA JPL. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.693.6602.
  132. ^ "What is a launch window?". Archived from the original on 2023-04-11. Retrieved 2021-10-08.
  133. ^ "Introduction to the GMAT Software" (PDF). NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Oct 29, 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 May 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
  134. ^ "Document Requirements Description" (PDF). ExoMars Project. European Space Agency. 16 July 2007. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
  135. ^ Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 305. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997. ISBN 1-56027-287-2
  136. ^ Kumar, Bharat (2005). An Illustrated Dictionary of Aviation. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-139606-3.
  137. ^ Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Sections 4.15 & 5.4.
  138. ^ Abbott, Ira H., and Doenhoff, Albert E. von: Theory of Wing Sections. Section 1.2
  139. ^ Myrabo, L.N. (1976). "MHD propulsion by absorption of laser radiation" (PDF). Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets. 13 (8): 466–472. Bibcode:1976JSpRo..13..466M. doi:10.2514/3.27919.
  140. ^ Myrabo, Leik N.; Messitt, Donald G.; Mead Jr., Franklin B. (January 1998). "Ground and flight tests of a laser propelled vehicle" (PDF). AIAA-98-1001. 36th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. Reno, NV. doi:10.2514/6.1998-1001.
  141. ^ Demerjian, Ave (20 February 2009). "Laser-powered aircraft are the future of flight. Maybe". Wired. Retrieved 2018-04-05.
  142. ^ Hsu, Jeremy (29 July 2009). "Laser-Powered Lightcraft 'At the Cusp of Commercial Reality'". Popular Science. Retrieved 2018-04-05.
  143. ^ "Air - Molecular Weight". www.engineeringtoolbox.com. Retrieved 2018-01-16.
  144. ^ Larson, W.J.; Wertz, J.R. (1992). Space Mission Analysis and Design. Boston: Kluver Academic Publishers.
  145. ^ "Current Catalog Files". Archived from the original on June 26, 2018. Retrieved July 13, 2018. LEO: Mean Motion > 11.25 & Eccentricity < 0.25
  146. ^ Sampaio, Jarbas; Wnuk, Edwin; Vilhena de Moraes, Rodolpho; Fernandes, Sandro (2014-01-01). "Resonant Orbital Dynamics in LEO Region: Space Debris in Focus". Mathematical Problems in Engineering. 2014: Figure 1: Histogram of the mean motion of the cataloged objects. doi:10.1155/2014/929810. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2018-07-13.
  147. ^ Young, Donald F.; Bruce R. Munson; Theodore H. Okiishi; Wade W. Huebsch (2010). A Brief Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (5 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-470-59679-1.
  148. ^ Graebel, W.P. (2001). Engineering Fluid Mechanics. Taylor & Francis. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-56032-733-2.
  149. ^ D. G. Andrews and R. Zubrin, "Magnetic Sails and Interstellar Travel", Paper IAF-88-553, 1988
  150. ^ R. Zubrin. (1999) Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam. ISBN 0-87477-975-8.
  151. ^ "The definition of mass".
  152. ^ "Brief History of Rockets".
  153. ^ McLean, Doug (2012). "Continuum Fluid Mechanics and the Navier-Stokes Equations". Understanding Aerodynamics: Arguing from the Real Physics. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 13–78. ISBN 9781119967514. The main relationships comprising the NS equations are the basic conservation laws for mass, momentum, and energy. To have a complete equation set we also need an equation of state relating temperature, pressure, and density...
  154. ^ Fritz Rohrlich (25 August 1989). From Paradox to Reality: Our Basic Concepts of the Physical World. Cambridge University Press. pp. 28–. ISBN 978-0-521-37605-1.
  155. ^ Klaus Mainzer (2 December 2013). Symmetries of Nature: A Handbook for Philosophy of Nature and Science. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 8–. ISBN 978-3-11-088693-1.
  156. ^ "Physics: Fundamental Forces and the Synthesis of Theory | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com.
  157. ^ Isaac Newton: "In [experimental] philosophy particular propositions are inferred from the phenomena and afterwards rendered general by induction": "Principia", Book 3, General Scholium, at p.392 in Volume 2 of Andrew Motte's English translation published 1729.
  158. ^ Proposition 75, Theorem 35: p. 956 – I.Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, translators: Isaac Newton, The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Preceded by A Guide to Newton's Principia, by I.Bernard Cohen. University of California Press 1999 ISBN 0-520-08816-6 ISBN 0-520-08817-4
  159. ^ Thornton, Stephen T.; Marion, Jerry B. (2004). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (5th ed.). Brooke Cole. p. 49. ISBN 0-534-40896-6.
  160. ^ See the Principia on line at Andrew Motte Translation
  161. ^ "Axioms, or Laws of Motion". gravitee.tripod.com. Retrieved 2021-02-14.
  162. ^ orbit (astronomy) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  163. ^ The Space Place :: What's a Barycenter
  164. ^ Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution, pp. 238, 246–252
  165. ^ "Orbital Mechanics". Archived from the original on 2013-12-16. Retrieved 2013-12-13.
  166. ^ "node". Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. 2004. Archived from the original on March 9, 2007. Retrieved May 17, 2007.
  167. ^ Moulton, Forest R. (1970) [1902]. Introduction to Celestial Mechanics (2nd revised ed.). Mineola, New York: Dover. pp. 322–23. ISBN 0486646874.
  168. ^ Arthur Erich Haas (1928). Introduction to theoretical physics.
  169. ^ a b Anderson, John D. Jr. (1991). Fundamentals of aerodynamics (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-001679-8.
  170. ^ Anderson, John D. Jr. (2016). Introduction to flight (Eighth ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill Education. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-07-802767-3.
  171. ^ Clancy, L.J. (1975). Aerodynamics, Sub-section 5.9. Pitman Publishing. ISBN 0 273 01120 0
  172. ^ Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PDF). FAA. p. Chapter 5, Aerodynamics of flight.
  173. ^ Paul A. Tipler (1976). "Ch. 12: Rotation of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Axis". Physics. Worth Publishers Inc. ISBN 0-87901-041-X.
  174. ^ Obregon, Joaquin (2012). Mechanical Simmetry. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4772-3372-6.
  175. ^ πλάσμα Archived 18 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek English Lexicon, on Perseus
  176. ^ Chu, P.K.; Lu, XinPel (2013). Low Temperature Plasma Technology: Methods and Applications. CRC Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4665-0990-0.
  177. ^ Piel, A. (2010). Plasma Physics: An Introduction to Laboratory, Space, and Fusion Plasmas. Springer. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-3-642-10491-6. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016.
  178. ^ Phillips, K. J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-521-39788-9. Archived from the original on 15 January 2018.
  179. ^ Aschwanden, M. J. (2004). Physics of the Solar Corona. An Introduction. Praxis Publishing. ISBN 978-3-540-22321-4.
  180. ^ Chiuderi, C.; Velli, M. (2015). Basics of Plasma Astrophysics. Springer. p. 17. ISBN 978-88-470-5280-2.
  181. ^ "Rogallo Wing -the story told by NASA". History.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2012-12-23.
  182. ^ "Terminal Velocity". NASA Glenn Research Center. Archived from the original on February 23, 2009. Retrieved March 4, 2009.
  183. ^ Leandro Bertoldo (2008). Fundamentos do Dinamismo (in Portuguese). Joinville: Clube de Autores. pp. 41–42.
  184. ^ Metha, Rohit. "11". The Principles of Physics. p. 378.
  185. ^ "Long-range" in the context of the time. See NASA history article Archived 7 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  186. ^ Neufeld, Michael J. (1995). The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era. New York: The Free Press. pp. 158, 160–162, 190. ISBN 9780029228951. Archived from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved 15 November 2019.
  187. ^ Ad Astra Rocket Company. "VASIMR". Ad Astra Rocket Company. Archived from the original on July 7, 2019. Retrieved July 9, 2019.
  188. ^ Barnes, H. A.; Hutton, J. F.; Walters, K. (1989). An introduction to rheology (5. impr. ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-444-87140-4.
  189. ^ Symon, Keith R. (1971). Mechanics (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-07392-8. Archived from the original on 2020-03-11. Retrieved 2019-09-18.
  190. ^ a b Peppler, I.L.: From The Ground Up, page 23. Aviation Publishers Co. Limited, Ottawa Ontario, Twenty Seventh Revised Edition, 1996. ISBN 0-9690054-9-0
  191. ^ Wind Turbine Vortex Generators Archived 2015-03-23 at the Wayback Machine, UpWind Solutions.
  192. ^ a b Micro AeroDynamics (2003). "How Micro VGs Work". Retrieved 2008-03-15.
  193. ^ Anderson, John D. Jr. (1991). Fundamentals of aerodynamics (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 492, 573. ISBN 0-07-001679-8.
  194. ^ Clancy, L.J. (1975), Aerodynamics, Section 11.7
  195. ^ Richard C. Morrison (1999). "Weight and gravity - the need for consistent definitions". The Physics Teacher. 37 (1): 51. Bibcode:1999PhTea..37...51M. doi:10.1119/1.880152.
  196. ^ Igal Galili (2001). "Weight versus gravitational force: historical and educational perspectives". International Journal of Science Education. 23 (10): 1073. Bibcode:2001IJSEd..23.1073G. doi:10.1080/09500690110038585. S2CID 11110675.
  197. ^ Gat, Uri (1988). "The weight of mass and the mess of weight". In Richard Alan Strehlow (ed.). Standardization of Technical Terminology: Principles and Practice – second volume. ASTM International. pp. 45–48. ISBN 978-0-8031-1183-7.
  198. ^ Jane Grossman, Michael Grossman, Robert Katz. The First Systems of Weighted Differential and Integral Calculus, ISBN 0-9771170-1-4, 1980.
  199. ^ Jane Grossman.Meta-Calculus: Differential and Integral, ISBN 0-9771170-2-2, 1981.
  200. ^ Smithsonian Air and Space museum collection (click on Long Description)
  201. ^ Orville Wright note
  202. ^ "Wright Brothers". Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Retrieved 29 September 2021.
  1. ^ Geostationary orbit and Geosynchronous (equatorial) orbit are used somewhat interchangeably in sources.
  2. ^ "Newtonian constant of gravitation" is the name introduced for G by Boys (1894). Use of the term by T.E. Stern (1928) was misquoted as "Newton's constant of gravitation" in Pure Science Reviewed for Profound and Unsophisticated Students (1930), in what is apparently the first use of that term. Use of "Newton's constant" (without specifying "gravitation" or "gravity") is more recent, as "Newton's constant" was also used for the heat transfer coefficient in Newton's law of cooling, but has by now become quite common, e.g. Calmet et al, Quantum Black Holes (2013), p. 93; P. de Aquino, Beyond Standard Model Phenomenology at the LHC (2013), p. 3. The name "Cavendish gravitational constant", sometimes "Newton–Cavendish gravitational constant", appears to have been common in the 1970s to 1980s, especially in (translations from) Soviet-era Russian literature, e.g. Sagitov (1970 [1969]), Soviet Physics: Uspekhi 30 (1987), Issues 1–6, p. 342 [etc.]. "Cavendish constant" and "Cavendish gravitational constant" is also used in Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, "Gravitation", (1973), 1126f. Colloquial use of "Big G", as opposed to "little g" for gravitational acceleration dates to the 1960s (R.W. Fairbridge, The encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences and astrogeology, 1967, p. 436; note use of "Big G's" vs. "little g's" as early as the 1940s of the Einstein tensor Gμν vs. the metric tensor gμν, Scientific, medical, and technical books published in the United States of America: a selected list of titles in print with annotations: supplement of books published 1945–1948, Committee on American Scientific and Technical Bibliography National Research Council, 1950, p. 26).
  3. ^ Cavendish determined the value of G indirectly, by reporting a value for the Earth's mass, or the average density of Earth, as 5.448 g⋅cm−3.
  4. ^ ISO 15919: Bhāratīya Antarikṣ Anusandhān Saṅgaṭhan Bhāratīya Antrikṣ Anusandhān Saṅgaṭhan
  5. ^ CNSA (China), ESA (most of Europe), ISRO, (India), JAXA (Japan), NASA (United States) and Roscosmos (Russia) are space agencies with full launch capabilities.
  1. ^ It was shown separately that separated spherically symmetrical masses attract and are attracted as if all their mass were concentrated at their centers.
This page was last edited on 16 March 2024, at 09:33
Basis of this page is in Wikipedia. Text is available under the CC BY-SA 3.0 Unported License. Non-text media are available under their specified licenses. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. WIKI 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with Wikimedia Foundation.