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Citrus long-horned beetle

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Citrus long-horned beetle
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Infraorder: Cucujiformia
Family: Cerambycidae
Subfamily: Lamiinae
Tribe: Lamiini
Genus: Anoplophora
Species:
A. chinensis
Binomial name
Anoplophora chinensis
(Forster, 1771)
Synonyms
  • Cerambyx farinosus Houttuyn, 1766 Homo.
  • Cerambyx chinensis Forster, 1771
  • Lamia punctator Fabricius, 1776
  • Cerambyx pulchricornis Voet, 1778 Unav.
  • Cerambyx sinensis Gmelin in Linnaeus, 1790
  • Calloplophora abbreviata Thomson, 1865
  • Calloplophora afflicta Thomson, 1865
  • Calloplophora luctuosa Thomson, 1865
  • Calloplophora malasiaca Thomson, 1865
  • Anoplophora malasiaca (Thomson, 1865)
  • Calloplophora sepulcralis Thomson, 1865
  • Anoplophora sepulchralis (Thomson, 1865) Lapsus calami
  • Melanauster perroudi Pic 1953

Anoplophora chinensis, the citrus long-horned beetle (also appearing in many sources as Anoplophora malasiaca),[1] is a long-horned beetle native to Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan and Southeast Asia where it is considered a serious pest.[2] This beetle has invaded several countries in Europe, including Italy, Switzerland, Turkey, France, Germany, and Croatia.[2]

Infestations by the beetle can kill many different types of hardwood trees including Citrus, pecan, apple, Australian pine, Hibiscus, sycamore, willow, pear, mulberry, chinaberry, poplar, Litchi, kumquat, Japanese red cedar, oak, and Ficus.

YouTube Encyclopedic

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Transcription

[ Background Noise ] [ Music ] >> You may not know it but you are part of the main line of defense against a serious threat to one of the country's most valuable resources, our hardwood trees. Many of our nation's most common hardwoods and shade trees are threatened by a pest against which they have no natural defense, a pest that could change forever the quality of life in our country. That pest the Asian long-horned beetle or ALB for short. The purpose of this program is to show you how to recognize the Asian long-horned beetle, identify signs of attack and report suspicious finds. If we are to have any chance of stopping the ALB people like you will have to help us discover new infestations so that they can be contained and destroyed. The Asian long-horned beetle is a native of China and other areas of Eastern Asia. In China it causes widespread damage and death in hybrid poplar plantations. These plantations are salvaged and the low quality infested wood is sometimes used to make crates and pallets. These beetles are transported to this continent in these infested wooden packing materials. Once here they can escape and infest trees in surrounding areas. Prior to 1996 there were no known infestations of ALB in North America. The first infestation in the U.S. was discovered in New York City in 1996. This was followed by the report of a second infestation in Chicago in 1998. Within months of the initial discoveries Asian long-horned beetles were found in several different urban and suburban settings in both cities. Millions of dollars have been spent trying to rid these areas of ALB and thousands of high-value shade trees already have been lost. ALB also has been found in dozens of port and warehouse locations nationwide. Such accidental introductions have the potential to develop into new infestations of trees. The ALB's favorite host trees are maples but it will also attack elms, ashes, willows, poplars, birches, horse chestnut, and buckeye. The ALB does not attack conifers or evergreens. Adult females chew out small pits in the bark and lay their eggs in them. The eggs hatch and the young grubs tunnel into the cambium causing branch die back. The grubs tunnel deeper into the tree as they grow. This tunneling eventually kills the tree by cutting off the flow of water and nutrients. Three death is caused by repeated attacks over several years. Because the Asian long-horned beetle spends so much of its life cycle deep inside the tree, traditional insect control methods like insecticides are proving extremely difficult to develop. At this time removing the infested trees and then burning or chipping them is the only viable option for eradication of the ALB. This is a costly time-consuming solution which may have severe economic and aesthetic consequences. There are three basic steps to the ALB eradication strategy. Eradicate or destroy the known infestations, break the pathway of infested wood, and find any undetected infestations. Known infestations are being intensely surveyed and eradicated. Surveying is done with tree climbers, people in bucket trucks and ground crews with binoculars. [Inaudible] removed federal, state, and local agencies are cooperating to help the affected areas recover. Quarantines in the known infestations place restrictions on the movement of certain types of wood from these areas to prevent ALB from being moved accidentally to uninfested areas. The USDA has taken steps to help fight ALB by breaking the pathway of infested wood from China. Since 1998 all solid wood packing material from China must be treated before entering the United States. Perhaps the most important part of ALB eradication is the early detection of infestations. This is where your assistance is so vital. Why do we need your help? There are so many places that the ALB may be present and looking for attacked trees is so difficult and time consuming that the regulatory agencies cannot do the job alone. If we can inform citizens, especially people who work regularly with trees, we can greatly improve our odds of finding infestations quickly enough to eradicate them. Finding new infestations as soon as possible may make the difference between getting rid of the ALB completely and having to live with this serious tree pest on a permanent basis. In order for you to help with early detection of ALB infestations it is necessary to know a little bit about the beetle. Like many insects the beetle has four life stages: egg, grub, pupa, and adult. The most destructive life stage is the grub but these are not likened to be seen because the burrow into the tree. The best way to spot an infestation is by observing the actual adult beetle. The adult beetles are large, 3/4 to 1-1/4 inches long. They are jet black with distinctive white spots on the back. They have antennae which are black and white banded and very long, 1-1/2 to 2 times longer than the beetle's body. In addition the feet and lets often have a bluish tinge. The most common time of the year to spot the adult beetles is June through October. There are a few native beetles that resemble the Asian long-horned beetle. Beetles such as the white spotted pine sawyer and the cottonwood borer may be easily confused with ALB. Although they have some characteristics that are different from the ALB many people may not be able to tell them apart with certainty. It is better to be safe than sorry. If you see any beetle that may be an Asian long-horned beetle be sure to follow the steps we will give you shortly to report your find. Even if you don't observe the actual adult ALB there are signs of damage that can warn you that an ALB infestation may be taking place. The most definitive sign of damage is the distinct exit hole. After pubating the mature adult chews its way out of the tree to disperse and mate. This leaves a perfectly round exit hole on the outside of the tree. This hole is 3/8 to 1/2 inch in diameter and looks as clean as a hole made with a drill. There are other less definitive signs that an ALB infestation may be happening. Egg sites are oval to round pits in the tree bark chewed out by the adult female for egg placement. Often sap is seen flowing from these egg sites. As the ALB grubs bore into a tree they create sawdust that is pushed out of their tunnels. This coarse sawdust often builds up where branches come together, where branches meet the main stem, and around the bases of the attacked trees. Sap and sawdust alone are not signs that a tree is infested with ALB as other insects and activities may cause these signs to occur, however if you see sap or sawdust on a maple tree or one of the other host trees these may be warning signs that ALB is present and you should look carefully at the rest of the tree for beetles, exit holes, or egg sites. As important as knowing what to look for is where to look. Maples are ALB's favorite host trees. If you have maples in your area this is the most likely place for an infestation to start. Accordingly you should be most alert for ALB in and around maple trees. Other trees that attract the ALB are elm, horse chestnut, willows, and poplars. ALB will attack additional tree species as well although not commonly. A complete list of host trees in North America has yet to be established. Look for ALB on live and dying hardwood trees but not on completely dead trees because ALB does not attack these. One reason that infested trees are difficult to spot is because the ALB usually attack smaller branches in the tree crown first. Only later when the beetles are attacking the larger branches and main stem can signs of attack be seen from ground level. The most thorough way of inspecting a tree is to look at all parts of it with the exception of the branch tips. What should you do if you see a possible ALB infestation? If you [inaudible] an ALB try to capture it in a container and place the container in the freezer to kill and preserve the specimen. Be sure to write down exactly where and when you found the beetle. Noting the exact location is critical so follow-up surveys can be done. In some cases it may be necessary to mark the tree in question with paint or flagging. If you see exit holes, egg sites, or sawdust which may have been made by ALB once again write down detailed location information for the tree and also note the specific location in the tree where you saw the hole. Any information you have on possible ALB attacks should be passed on to your supervisor, company owner, or one of the following agencies: County Cooperative Extension, State Department of Agriculture, State Forestry Department or State Department of Natural Resources, USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service or USDA Forest Service. You are truly one of the first lines of defense against this serious pest. With every passing day that an Asian long-horned beetle infestation goes undetected our chances of eradicating it from the U.S. decrease. You might ask exactly what is the risk from the Asian long-horned beetle if we don't eradicate it? Roughly 30% of urban and suburban trees in the U.S. are maples, ALB's main target. The various forest-related industries at direct or indirect risk from ALB are valued at $41 billion. In the eastern U.S. alone 4 million jobs depend on forests that an Asian long-horned beetle may damage. Finally there are immeasurable aesthetic and sentimental values associated with many trees the ALB may kill. You can see that the ALB could become a serious problem nationwide if we are not alert. Please make it a habit to look for and notice the things we've discussed. The presence of the large striking adult beetle with its white spotted body and long-banded antennae, the perfectly round and smooth exit holes on the outside of trees. The exit holes are 3/8 to 1/2 inch in diameter. The ALB is a serious pest but with your help on the mainline of defense we can stop it before irreparable harm is done to our nation's valuable hardwood and shade trees. [ Music ]

Geographic range

Asia

Anoplophora chinensis is native to most parts of China and Korea, as well as Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines.[3] However, this beetle is characterized as an invasive species in many parts of the world, including countries in Europe such as Italy, as it has been able to be transported to additional geographic regions by burrowing into shipments from Asia to countries in Europe.[3] It makes its way into shipments that contain plants or wood and burrows into them.[3]

North America

The citrus long-horned beetle was first discovered in the U.S. in April 1999, when a single beetle was found in a nursery greenhouse in Athens, Georgia on certain bonsai trees imported from China.[4] The beetle was later discovered in August of 2001, at a Tukwila, Washington nursery near Seattle in a shipment from Korea of 369 bonsai maple trees. Three of the beetles were captured at the nursery, including a mated female ready to lay eggs. However, when the bonsai trees were dissected, eight larvae exit tunnels were found, indicating that five more might have escaped into the surrounding community. Officials concerned with the potential for spread asked residents in the region not to move firewood,[5] even in areas with no known infestations.[4]

UK

The beetle was found in several sightings in Essex in 2008.[6]

Habitat

A. chinensis generally prefer warm, temperate climates, but not climates that tend to be too hot.[7] Areas around the world known for temperate climates are more likely to be populated by a subspecies of A. chinensis as an invasive species. For example, the temperate climates of the US states Florida and California are likely more at risk for an infestation than other US states. In China, the preferred temperatures are approximately 3 °C-7 °C lower than another subspecies in Italy for optimal growth and development. The exact range of preferred temperatures can also vary depending on the population of 'A. chinensis' in a given region or country. A. chinensis is likely composed of two subspecies, with the other subspecies being Anoplophora malasiaca. A study showed that this subspecies of A. chinensis in China preferred temperatures approximately 3 °C-7 °C lower than a population of A. chinensis in Italy for optimal growth and development.[7]

Climate within habitat

Anoplophora chinensis generally makes its home in plants and lay their eggs in the roots of plants and trees. They inhabit over 100 different species of plants from 19 families, about half of which are from China, where A. chinensis is a native species.[7] While they inhabit many different types of trees, citrus trees are commonly used for burrowing and subsequent larvae maturation and feeding.[8]

Temperatures are generally more stable in the roots of plants throughout the day as well as throughout the year, and this absence of drastic fluctuations in temperature allow for more of the offspring to pupate and grow into adulthood.[7] However, studies have shown that some fluctuation of temperature is necessary for survival to adulthood. These studies introduced a temperature fluctuation of 20 °C-30 °C at most, demonstrating a mild temperature change but not one that would encompass all of the seasons. This demonstrates that some mild temperature fluctuation is necessary for growth into adulthood, but extreme heat and/or extreme cold will not lead to offspring pupating and surviving to adulthood. For example, temperatures near and above 40 °C tend to stop growth and development altogether.[7]

The preferred climate of A. chinensis can vary depending on the specific region a particular population of the beetle is located in. One example is highlighted in a study showing that a subspecies of A. chinensis in China preferred temperatures approximately 3 °C-7 °C lower than another subspecies in Italy for optimal growth and development.[7] At different larval developmental stages, the beetle prefers different regions of the wood in the plants that they inhabit. Surrounding environments tend to have temperatures approximately 2 °C warmer than the phloem within the wood of plants in this respective area, and the temperature within different parts of the plant varies slightly as well. Wood deeper into a plant tends to have a slightly warmer temperature than wood closer to the outside of a given plant, and developed larvae tend to move deeper into their inhabited plant and feed on deeper wood than less developed larvae.[7]

Life cycle

The citrus long-horned beetle has a life cycle of approximately one to two years. Adult beetles can be found from April to December. They are most active from May to July.[9] Upon developing through all the instars of the larval stage, they then transition to the pupal stage, where they remain for 4-6 weeks. Once citrus long-horned beetles reach the adult stage, they are classified as pre-adults and take about 1-2 weeks to mature. [10] The adult beetles feed on twigs, petioles, and leaf veins for 10-15 days before oviposition.

Reproduction

Citrus long-horned beetles find mates using contact and short-range pheromones. The host plant for larvae is important for determining longevity and fecundity of adults. [9] Female citrus long-horned beetle lay and deposit individual eggs in tree bark.[2] More specifically, the lower trunk, root collar region, and exposed roots. Females chew into the bark and lay a single egg in the bark tissues, creating a T-shaped oviposition site.[9] Eggs laid during the summer hatch in 1-2 weeks.[9] After the beetle larva hatches, it chews into the tree, forming a tunnel that is then used as a place for pupation. [2] The process of egg laying through adult emergence can take one to two years.

Food resources

Larvae

Each female citrus long-horned beetle can lay up to 200 eggs after mating, and eggs are generally laid within the wood and plant vascular system of the chosen host plant. When hatched and ready to feed, these larvae bore into the wood of the plant and feed on the phloem-cambium region of the plant in their early larval stage. The citrus longhorn beetle bores deeper into the tree and feeds on the xylem in later larval stages.

Adults

When newly hatched, adults are not considered fully sexually mature and undergo a period of feeding on tree twigs, or twigs of their host plant, to reach full sexual maturity. Adult Anoplophora chinensis are polyphagous, meaning that they infest and eat a wide variety of plants. While adults infest and feed on generally most tree species they are introduced to, there are particular trees that are more common for them to feed on, as they promote greater survival. A tree commonly fed on is citrus trees, explaining part of the origin of its common name, "citrus longhorned beetle". Additionally, a study showed that urban trees, and specifically the species Acer negundo, Aesculus hippocastanum, Platanus x acerifolia, Quercus rubra, and Tilia platyphyllos, allowed promoted survival more than other urban trees. This study also showed that, between the species tested, the citrus longhorned beetles preferred the two species of the Acer genus: Acer negundo and Acer campestris. Scientists also acknowledged that since Anoplophora chinensis feeds on the majority of plants it encounters, its host range will continue to expand as it infests new regions and discovers new plant species.[11]

Genetics

Researchers have relatively recently completed an analysis on the complete mitochondrial genome of the citrus long-horned beetle.[12] They sequenced the entire 15,805 base pair genome, which included several protein-coding regions (exons), tRNA molecules, and rRNA molecules. Their findings include several conserved intron regions (non-protein coding regions) as well as a mitochondrial genome biased towards adenine and thymine nucleotides. They also determined the existence of 12 representative Lamiinae phylogenetic relationships using Bayesian inference techniques. Using a best-fitting nucleotide substitution model, researchers ran over two million generations to find convergence points.[12] They assessed the phylogenetic tree and divided it into three clades: Mesosini, Obereini, and Lamiini.[12]

Parasitic behaviors

Anoplophora chinensis lays its eggs within the roots and vascular system of their host plant. The eggs hatch and spend their larval and pupation stages in the plant vascular system. This infestation damages the host plant, causing it to weaken and eventually die. This parasitism is a main reason that this species' transportation to other countries is commonly referred to as an infestation.[13] Given that A. chinensis often inhabit citrus plants, these plants are most negatively impacted by this beetle's parasitism.

Given the current climate change crisis, the infestation of these beetles has economic implications for many countries, particularly where Anoplophora chinensis is invasive.[8] The parasitic behavior of Anoplophora chinensis, along with the fact that it has now been introduced into several additional continents like Europe and North America, has led to damage in fruit tree plantations, resulting in substantial economic loss.[14]

As an invasive species in Europe

The citrus long-horned beetle has been further implicated in parasitic behavior as seen in their disruption of the vascular tissue of trees.[15] Researchers in one study collected several adult and larval citrus long-horned beetles from which molecular analyses and physiological traits could be measured. Amplification of specific sequences of the citrus long-horned beetle genome using the polymerase chain reaction confirmed that infestations within wooden tissue in plants was indeed citrus long-horned beetles. In doing so, they proved that DNA extraction from citrus long-horned beetles is a possible mechanism by which researchers can manage invasive beetle outbreaks. Through an analysis of larval frass collected in field studies, researchers can now reliably diagnose citrus long-horned beetle infestation, which can help in the inspections of plants for plant trading as well as facilitate more effective plant management techniques.[15]

Management

Methods of control have been studied in various European countries. In France in 2003, 2 infected Acer platanoides trees near a bonsai greenhouse were found with 11 exit holes and 5 adult beetles. The trees were removed and subsequent surveys were conducted, declaring the pest officially eradicated in 2006.[16]

In Croatia in 2007, exit holes in Lagerstroemia and Acer palmatum in greenhouses indicated an invasion by Citrus long-horned beetles. A quarantine was enacted on these plants following this discovery and infested plants were burned. Plants that contained larvae were destroyed and up until 2010, the movement of plants in the nursery was prohibited. Croatia's status in eradicating these beetles is transient.[16]

In Rome, Italy, in 2008, 15 adults and 48 exit holes were discovered in 7 Acer negundo trees and 5 Aesculus hippocastanum. The number of infected trees increased by 27 between 2008 and 2009. Infested plants and surrounding plants were removed and dissected.[16] The Citrus long-horned beetle infests the base but lays eggs higher up in trees. However, no signs of infestation were seen in nearby plants. In Lombardy, beetles were shown to produce frass in every developmental stage during the growing season.[16]

In the Netherlands in 2007, exit holes were found in Acer palmatum. Plants within a 300m radius were removed and checked for the Citrus long-horned beetle. Further study of infested plants revealed that infestation can occur without obvious symptoms. Unlike in Italy, the beetles in the Netherlands produced no frass, which could be attributed to less active larvae due to the cooler climate.[16] The Dutch climate could have played a significant role in the spread of the beetles. This is because the summers are cooler than the other European countries mentioned and the native countries of China and Japan.[16] The cooler climate can cause the Citrus long-horned beetle to develop slower, increasing the chances of eradication. Additionally, a cool climate can lead to a lower reproduction rate; 28 larvae and 24 exit holes found in the Westland region of the Netherlands suggests difficulty in starting a 2nd generation along with spreading.[16]

Physiology

Olfaction, particularly the chemosensory receptors of Anoplophora chinensis, contribute to reproduction by influencing mate recognition and locating oviposition sites. Oviposition sites are specific locations (or in this case, specific points on or inside the plant) where Anoplophora chinensis lays its eggs. The chemosensory receptors of the beetle include two types of olfactory receptors: ORs, or odorant receptors, and IRs, or ionotropic receptors.[14] These chemosensory receptors are types of pheromone receptors and are made of a complex combination of lipids.

For females, these phospholipids are condensed on the cuticles, acting as a recognition signal for males to attract them. Females are attracted by the scent of a newly killed male citrus longhorned beetle. Both of these pheromone signals are generally detected within a relatively close range. These pheromones, and the male-secreted pheromones in particular, are secreted by a wide variety of species, especially from the genus Monochamus.[17]

Impact on mating

The mating processes of Anoplophora chinensis depend primarily on pheromone secretion and reception, with very little dependence on visual cues. As with the general odorant receptors and ionotropic receptors, research suggests that all pheromones that are secreted during mate location as well as the mating process itself are generally short range.

While the female receptors are located within the female's cuticles, the male receptors are located on the male's antennae. In 1998 Qiao Wang at the Massey University Institute of Natural Resources demonstrated that these pheromones are most active between male and female beetles, as males did not detect any freshly dead male beetle until the male was physically touching it with his antennae, but he could detect a freshly dead female via pheromone reception. While searching for a mate involves receptors that receive signals from a short distance, mating behaviors themselves are enforced mostly by contact pheromones, with some reception of short-range volatile sex pheromones.[18]

References

  1. ^ S.W. Lingafelter, E.R. Hoebeke (2002) Revision of Anoplophora (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). 236 S., Entomological Society of Washington, Washington, DC. ISBN 0-9720714-1-5
  2. ^ a b c d "Citrus longhorn beetle". Ministry for Primary Industries. Retrieved 2021-01-05.
  3. ^ a b c Sun, Long; Zhang, Ya-Nan; Qian, Jia-Li; Kang, Ke; Zhang, Xiao-Qing; Deng, Jun-Dan; Tang, Yan-Ping; Chen, Cheng; Hansen, Laura; Xu, Tian; Zhang, Qing-He; Zhang, Long-Wa (2018). "Identification and Expression Patterns of Anoplophora chinensis (Forster) Chemosensory Receptor Genes from the Antennal Transcriptome". Frontiers in Physiology. 9: 90. doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.00090. ISSN 1664-042X. PMC 5819563. PMID 29497384.
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  5. ^ "Don't Move Firewood". Retrieved 30 September 2011.
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