The American Anthropometric Society, also known as the Brain Society,[1] was a Philadelphia-based anthropometry organization of physicians, scientists and intellectuals founded in 1889. Members agreed to donate their brains after their deaths for analysis by living members of the organization in order to correlate intelligence and other mental qualities with brain morphology.[2] The society claimed to have approximately 300 members. The last brain collected was in 1938. Notable donors to the collection included some of the top medical and scientific leaders of Philadelphia at the time and the poet Walt Whitman. Analyses of the brains in the collection showed there was no correlation between intelligence and brain size but nothing else of scientific interest. The remaining twenty-two brains from the collection are currently stored at the Wistar Institute.
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Patricia Moore - 2012 RIT Innovation Hall of Fame
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2009 Berry Lecture: Children of Adversity: Health and Nutrition of American Slaves
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♪ MUSIC ♪ MOORE: RIT WAS THE ONLY UNIVERSITY I APPLIED TO. I ASSUMED I'D HAVE A CAREER IN SOME FORM OF ART, BUT I HAD NO IDEA UNTIL I GOT TO RIT THAT THERE WERE THINGS OTHER THAN DRAWING PICTURES THAT COULD BE CLASSIFIED AS ART AND THAT'S WHEN I FOUND INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. TWIST: I THINK THAT SHE WAS GIVEN THE FREEDOM EARLY IN HER LIFE AND THROUGH HER EDUCATION TO DEVELOP HER CREATIVITY AND TO BE INQUISITIVE AND TO ASK A LOT OF QUESTIONS. MOORE: I RECEIVED PROBABLY THE BEST GIFT ANY STUDENT GRADUATING COULD HAVE AND THAT WAS AN INVITATION TO COME TO NEW YORK CITY AND WORK WITH RAYMOND LOEWY WHO WAS THE FATHER OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, PRODUCT DESIGN, IN THE UNITED STATES. I WAS VERY SURPRISED TO LEARN I WAS THE ONLY FEMALE AND THERE WERE 350 ARCHITECTS, DESIGNERS AND ENGINEERS AND AS THE ONLY WOMAN ON BOARD TO TAKE CARE OF PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN, I HAD A VOICE THAT WAS NOT AS COMMON AS THE OTHERS IN THE ROOM AND I WAS THE ONE WHO WOULD BRAVELY RAISE MY HAND AND SAY, "WELL WHAT ABOUT PEOPLE WITH ARTHRITIS? WHAT ABOUT PEOPLE WHO DON'T HAVE FEET TO WALK BUT USE WHEELS TO MOVE? AND WHAT ABOUT, WHAT ABOUT WHAT ABOUT?" AND I WOULD CONSTANTLY HEAR, "PATTI, WE DON'T DESIGN FOR ‘THOSE' PEOPLE!" AND I DIDN'T UNDERSTAND THIS HIERARCHY BY DESIGN THAT SOME PEOPLE DESERVED GOOD DESIGN AND OTHER PEOPLE DIDN'T. AND I HAD NO IDEA WHY IT EXISTED BUT I KNEW IN MY HEART OF HEARTS WE HAD TO CHANGE IT. I REALIZED THAT I DIDN'T JUST WANT TO BE AN ACTRESS PRETENDING TO BE AN ELDER, BUT THAT WHAT HADN'T BEEN ACCOMPLISHED, AT LEAST WITH THE VARIABLE OF AGE, WAS A TRUE IMMERSION CHARACTER, AN EMPATHIC CHARACTER. SO WE DEVELOPED ALL THE PROSTHESIS THAT WOULD ALTER MY BODY; GIVE ME CURVATURE OF THE SPINE, TAKE AWAY MY VISION BY USING CLOUDED LENSES, PLUGGING MY EARS SO I COULDN'T REALLY HEAR AND WEARING NON OPERATING HEARING AIDS, TAPING MY HANDS, MY LEGS, USING SPLINTS SO THAT I COULDN'T RUN, I COULDN'T BEND, I COULDN'T RAISE MY ARMS. I NEEDED THE SUPPORT OF PEOPLE AROUND ME IN THE COMMUNITY TO HELP ME DO THE SIMPLEST OF THINGS BECAUSE I WAS LIVING IN THIS SHELL, A BODY CHANGED BY TIME. YOU COULD SEE THIS VERY SAD DISTINCTION THAT EXISTS IN THIS WORLD TODAY BECAUSE WE DID NOT DESIGN AND BUILD STRUCTURES, SERVICES, PLACES, SPACES FOR THE PRESENCE OF ELDERS AND FOR PEOPLE WHO DO THINGS DIFFERENTLY THAN THE NORM. REMINGTON: SHE IDENTIFIED EARLY IN HER CAREER A NEED AND A PROBLEM AND SHE STRUCTURED A DEFINITE RESPONSE TO THAT NEED AND I THINK WE'RE ALL VERY PROUD OF THAT ACCOMPLISHMENT AND I THINK THAT IS SOMETHING THAT STICKS OUT AS A RECOGNIZABLE BENCHMARK IN HER CAREER, EVEN THOUGH SHE'S GONE ON AND ON AND ON FAR BEYOND THAT POINT. TWIST: I WOULD HOPE, AND I WOULD THINK IT IS TRUE, THAT PATTI'S EARLY EDUCATION HAD SOMETHING TO DO WITH HER ATTITUDE AND HER VALUES AND ESPECIALLY HER RESPECT FOR ALL PEOPLE. MOORE: UNIVERSALITY JUST SEEMED TO BE THE MOST SENSIBLE COURSE OF DESIGN IN OUR EYES. WHAT WE WERE LOOKING AT WAS DESIGNING WITH EQUITY; DESIGNING FOR ALL PEOPLE AS EQUAL AND RECOGNIZING THAT THERE WERE NOT CONSUMERS THAT WE COULD CALL ‘THOSE' PEOPLE, BUT RATHER ALL OF US HAVE THE SAME DISCREET AND INDIVIDUAL AND UNIQUE NEEDS AND THE SAME COMMONALITIES. ONE OF THE PRODUCTS I'M MOST PROUD OF IS THE MAMMOGRAPHIC UNIT WE DESIGNED SO THAT WHEN OUR BREAST IS IN COMPRESSION, WHICH IS VERY PAINFUL, WE HAVE AN AUTOMATIC RELEASE ONCE THE X- RAY HAS BEEN COMPLETED SO ACTUALLY THAT'S ONE OF MY PROUDEST MOMENTS WAS FIGHTING AGAINST, SADLY, THE MEN WHO WERE FINANCING THIS PROJECT, WHO SAID THAT WE DIDN'T NEED TO SPEND MONEY ON THAT DETAIL. BUT I DON'T KNOW IF WE'LL EVER BE ABLE TO TALK ABOUT THIS WITHOUT EMBARRASSING SOME PEOPLE, BUT I SUGGESTED WE COULD PROBABLY USE SOME COMPRESSION ON THEIR BODIES AND THAT'S WHAT GOT ME THE BUDGET. THAT'S A VERY FAMOUS PATTI MOORE STORY (LAUGHING). A MORE GLOBAL STORY, OF COURSE, WOULD BE THE OXO GOOD GRIPS PRODUCTS AND BEING PART OF THE TEAM WITH SMART DESIGN, HELPING SAM FARBER AND BETSY FARBER JUST TAKE A LOOK AT SUCH A SIMPLE, INNOCENT DAILY PRACTICE OF PREPARING YOUR MEAL IS THE KIND OF THING THAT DESIGNERS LOVE TO SOLVE. REMINGTON: I USE OXO GOOD GRIPS EVERY MORNING OPENING A CAN OF DOG FOOD FOR MY DOG AND THINK OF PATTI EVERY MORNING, ACTUALLY (LAUGHING)! MOORE: DESIGN IS SUPPOSED TO EMPOWER PEOPLE; IT'S NOT SUPPOSED TO DISABLE PEOPLE AND THE ONLY TIME I EVEN USE THE WORD DISABLE IS IN CHIDING DESIGNERS AND SAYING, "YOU DIDN'T DO A GOOD JOB THERE. LET'S TRY AGAIN." PEOPLE AREN'T DISABLED. EACH OF US HAS SOME LEVEL OF CAPABILITY, SOME LEVEL OF ABILITY. DESIGN IS INTENDED TO MEET THAT LEVEL AND EXCEED IT AND SO IT GOES BEYOND COMPENSATION TO THRIVING, NOT JUST SURVIVING BY DESIGN. SO WHEREVER THERE'S A ROADBLOCK IN OUR LIVES IT'S BECAUSE SOMEBODY DIDN'T DO THEIR JOB RIGHT AND ON THAT POINT I'M ADAMANT. TWIST: I THINK CREATIVITY IS A GOD GIVEN GIFT. I THINK USING IT IS INNOVATION. MOORE: THOSE OF US WHO IDEATE ABOUT WHAT LIFE COULD BE ARE OFTEN IN A SITUATION WHERE SOME OF THE BEST IDEAS COLLECT DUST FOR A WHILE UNTIL THE RIGHT TECHNOLOGY, THE RIGHT MATERIALS, THE RIGHT SCIENCE IS IN PLACE AND IT'S SOMETIMES A WAIT AND SEE GAME. BUT YOU'RE ALWAYS BUILDING FOR WHAT IFS AND WHAT ABOUT TOMORROW AND WHAT COULD WE POSSIBLY DO AND WE CAN DO ANYTHING BY DESIGN. ♪ MUSIC ♪
History
The society was founded in 1889 in Philadelphia by Harrison Allen, Francis Xavier Dercum, Joseph Leidy,[3] Silas Weir Mitchell,[4] William Pepper, Edward Charles Spitzka[3] and Isaac J. Wistar.[4] It was modeled after the Society of Mutual Autopsy founded in Paris in 1881.[3] While phrenology, the pseudoscience that linked bumps on the skull to mental traits, was popular in the early 19th century, the American Anthropometric Society believed that differences in brain morphology could predict intelligence, personality and other personal characteristics. A spin-off society was created by Burt Green Wilder, who quit the American Anthropometric Society in 1891 and formed the much larger Wilder Brain Collection, at Cornell University.[2]
In the beginning, most autopsies were conducted by Allen and Dercum. however, the pathologist Henry Ware Cattel was hired in 1892 to remove the brains and properly preserve them.[2] The organization claimed to have over 300 members, but only a few publicly announced their membership.[5] At one point, the society possessed approximately 50 brains of non-eminent persons, most likely prisoners and asylum patients. When the collection was transferred to the Wistar Institute, these brains were most likely discarded.[6] The last brain donated to the collection was Henry Herbert Donaldson's in 1938.[7]
Twenty-two brains from the collection are currently stored at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia. Records at the Wistar Institute show that there were only two dozen brains ever stored there.[6]
Analysis of brains
In 1907, Edward Anthony Spitzka published a paper on his study of six brains bequeathed to the society.[3] Spitzka claimed that brain weight was correlated with intelligence and that brain fissures, frontal lobe development, and the corpus callosum were more developed in the brains of eminent men. His work was roundly criticized by other scientists since he had not taken shrinkage of the brains into consideration.[8]
Spitzka's publication caused a minor sensation due to his mention of the status of Walt Whitman's brain.[9] He wrote, "The brain of Walt Whitman, together with the jar in which it was placed, was said to have been dropped on the floor by a careless assistant. Unfortunately, not even the pieces were saved."[10] However, in his personal diary sometime between 1891 and 1893, Henry Ware Cattell confessed to accidentally allowing Whitman's brain to decompose during the preservation process by "not having the jar properly covered".[11] He may have left the jar uncovered or forgot to add additional preservative for as long as six months.[2]
In 1919, the brain of William Osler was examined by Myrtelle Canavan and Henry Herbert Donaldson. They observed no unusual characteristics in the surface his brain but did not section it or evaluate it histologically. In 1959, Wilder Penfield of the Montreal Neurological Institute arranged to have Osler's brain brought to his institute and evaluated. The brain was evaluated both grossly and histologically, and no significant differences were observed between his brain and those of less eminent persons.[12] Osler's brain was returned to Philadelphia; however, some of the histological samples were obtained by a rare book collector and sold on eBay.[2]
In a time when some anthropologists claimed that brain and skull measurement were impacted by race and sex, Franklin P. Mall conducted studies using the brains of the American Anthropometric Society to prove this claim untrue.[2] Analysis of the brains in the American Anthropometric Society and other brain clubs proved that brain weight was not an accurate predictor of intelligence but not much else.[2]
Notable donors
- Harrison Allen (1841-1897), physician and anatomist[10]
- Edward Drinker Cope (1840-1897), zoologist, paleontologist, comparative anatomist, herpetologist and ichthyologist[10]
- Henry Herbert Donaldson (1857-1938), neuroscientist[7]
- Joseph Leidy (1823-1891), paleontologist, parasitologist and anatomist[10]
- William Osler (1849-1919), physician, one of the founders of Johns Hopkins Hospital[10]
- William Pepper (1843-1898), physician, medical educator and eleventh Provost of the University of Pennsylvania[10]
- J. William White (1850-1916), surgeon[1]
- Walt Whitman (1819-1892), poet, essayist and journalist[10]
References
Citations
- ^ a b Burrell 2003, p. 110.
- ^ a b c d e f g Wright, James R. (1 May 2022). "Société Mutuelle d'Autopsie, American Anthropometric Society, and the Wilder Brain Collection". Arch Pathol Lab Med. 147 (5): 611–632. doi:10.5858/arpa.2021-0623-HP. PMID 35984433.
- ^ a b c d Spitzka 1907, p. 175.
- ^ a b Herr, Mickey (21 February 2018). "On The Hunt For Brains, Discovering The Wistar Institute". hiddencityphila.org. Hidden City Philadelphia. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
- ^ Burrell 2003, p. 123.
- ^ a b Burrell 2003, p. 124.
- ^ a b Burrell 2003, p. 128.
- ^ Burrell 2003, p. 111.
- ^ Burrell 2003, p. 107.
- ^ a b c d e f g Spitzka 1907, p. 176.
- ^ Gosline 2014, p. 160.
- ^ Avery, Ron. "Philadelphia Oddities: Wistar Brain Collection". www.ushistory.org. Indepedence Hall Association. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
Sources
- Burrell, Brian (2003). "The Strange Fate of Whitman's Brain" (PDF). Walt Whitman Quarterly Review. 20 (3): 107–133. doi:10.13008/2153-3695.1708. Retrieved December 31, 2023.
- Gosline, Sheldon Lee (2014). ""I am a fool": Dr. Henry Cattell's Private Confession about What Happened to Walt Whitman's Brain". Walt Whitman Quarterly Review. 31 (4): 158–162. doi:10.13008/0737-0679.2122. Retrieved January 2, 2024.
- Spitzka, Edw. Anthony (1907). "A Study of the Brains of Six Eminent Scientists and Scholars Belonging to the American Anthropometric Society, together with a Description of the Skull of Professor E. D. Cope". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. New Series. 1 (4): 175–308. doi:10.2307/1005434. JSTOR 1005434. Retrieved December 31, 2023.
This page was last edited on 23 March 2024, at 18:01