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The conclusion of the Civil War and the passage
of both the Fourteenth Amendment and Reconstruction
civil rights acts obliged the state of Illinois
to lift its laws prohibiting Af
rican-Americans from voting and serving on
juries. In this period the city of Chicago
began to educate black children alongside
whites, and African-Americans gained access
to state-funded colleges as well. But blacks
made up less than 2% of the population
in the North, and many whites remained ambivalent
or outright hostile to their struggle for
full social equality. Thus African-Americans
made slow progress in Illinois and across
the North.
\par Many white workers in Illinois feared
competition from African-Am
ericans trying to improve their lot, and worked
to restrict blacks to unskilled labor. Many
labor unions, with the notable exception of
the Knights of Labor, refused to let blacks
join. Tradesmen maneuvered to keep African-Americans
out of apprenticeship
programs. Black artisans migrating from the
South often found themselves restricted to
a black-only clientele by white consumers
anxious about African-Americans' social rise.
\par Many African-Americans came to central
and southern Illinois to work as coal mine
rs. Often mine owners recruited southern blacks
to come north and work in mines in order to
replace striking white workers. Nevertheless,
the United Mine Workers organized integrated,
"mixed" locals, and by the end of the nineteenth
century over 20,000 Af
rican Americans belonged to the UMW.
\par Many African-Americans, and especially
women, worked as servants. Like blacks working
as unskilled laborers, they found that they
were paid far less than whites for comparable
service. This low pay often prevented Afric
an-Americans from marrying and starting families
until later in life, when they had attained
some financial stability. African-Americans
in the North also faced a rigid pattern of
residential segregation that confined them
to specific neighborhoods. Frust
rated by the slow pace of social change, African-American
leaders like Benjamin Singleton and Bishop
Henry McNeal Turner advocated colonization,
or blacks' removal to Africa to begin a new
society there.
\par The American legal system did little
to help African
Americans in this period. In 1883 the United
States Supreme Court upheld laws denying African-Americans
access to private facilities like trains,
theaters and hotels, terming their exclusion
a "private wrong" outside the scope of the
law. After black act
ivists organized to challenge this ruling,
the court upheld the doctrine in 1896's }{\rtlch\fcs1
\ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid725965 Plessy
v. Ferguson,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0
\insrsid725965 which articulated a doctrine
of "separate but equal."
\par As it grew to become a large city, Chicago
became a center of black political and intellectual
life
. Lucy Parsons married a white man named Albert
Parsons. Together they became two of the city's
most prominent radical social critics and
organizers. Lucy Parsons was a renowned orator,
andhelped to organize the Chicago Working
Women's Union. In 1891 she
began publishing her own newspaper -- "Freedom."
\par Ferdinand Barnett graduated from the
City of Chicago law school and became the
first black assistant state's attorney in
Illinois. He also f
ounded and edited the Chicago Conservator,
a newspaper devoted to the fight for black
equality. In 1895 he married the noted southern
political activist, journalist and lecturer
}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0
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\par Born a child of Mississippi slaves in
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found education and began teaching school
as a teenager. Working as an educator in Memphis,
}
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challenged the southern practice of segregated
facilities by suing a railroad, and became
a journalist devoted to exposing blacks' unfair
lot in society. In 1892 three of her friends
were lynched by white mobs, and }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst
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wrote scathing exposes of the practice which
received wide national attention. Facing intimidation
and violence in Memphis, }
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became a traveling lecturer before marrying
Barnett.
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1
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confronted the northern reform establishment
as well as southern racism. In the 1
890s she confronted Frances Willard and the
Women's Christian Temperance Union for their
support of southern reformers who accepted
the practice of lynching. In 1894 she published
}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid725965
The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not
in the World's Columbian Exposition}{\rtlch\fcs1
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blacks' exclusion from the fair by white organizers.
After 1895 }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1
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largely confined herself to local political
causes and raising her family.
\par While African-Americans were largely
discouraged or barred from taking part in
the World's Columbian Exposition, black women
did succeed in speaking before the Women's
Congress at the fair. One speech, by Franc
es Ellen Watkins Harper demanded justice for
her race and defined the work of middle-class
black women in the coming era.
\par African-Americans in the North and South
were overwhelmingly
Republican in politics, but found themselves
disappointed as their party's white majority
lost interest in the tasks of southern Reconstruction
and black social equality. Many turned to
private organizations, including churches
and social clubs, for the s
ocial outlets and status that white society
denied to blacks. By the 1890s, middle-class
black women especially formed clubs that resembled
white women's organizations in their devotion
to education, suffrage, temperance, moral
reform, and self-help.
\par Other new ethnic groups came to Chicago
in this period as well. European immigration
began again at the conclusion of the Civil
War, and Chicago, situated at the western
end of the Great Lakes,
became a major destination. The Great Chicago
Fire of 1871 only accelerated immigration
to the city by opening up many new positions
in the construction trades and other industries
devoted to rebuilding the area. Many of the
new immigrants came to America
from southern and eastern Europe, as well
as Ireland.
\par Many immigrants arrived in cities where
friends or family members had already set
down roots. This strategy identified favorable
locations for immigration, and helped to build
new communities. Like Afr
ican-Americans, many new immigrants faced
housing segregation and limited opportunities
in business, the trades and unions. Often
immigrants responded by asserting themselves
in economic sectors largely overlooked by
native-born whites.
\par In the 1870s and 1880s Chicago became
a city of newcomers, with a new population
that dwarfed the native-born elites who had
arrived before the Civil War. This often-unstable
mix clashed over issues like the regulation
or outright prohibition of alcoholic
beverages. Many Yankee reformers such as Frances
Willard identified alcohol abuse as a leading
cause of poverty, family disintegration, and
violence against women. All too often, they
believed, men squandered their paychecks on
strong drink, leaving their
families to starve. But many of the new immigrants
came to America from societies in which beer
and wine played central roles. German-Americans,
outraged at the Republican Party's tilt toward
the reformers' position, switched their allegiance
to the Democ
rats in this period.
\par Many Irish had come to Illinois in the
decades before the Civil War to help build
the Illinois and Michigan Canal. In the years
after the conflict they formed increasin
gly strong community organizations, many times
around the Catholic Church. The cause of Irish
independence from England also informed many
groups, including an unfortunate armed sortie
into British Canada at the Civil War's close.
In the Gilded Age Irish-
A
mericans played significant roles in the formation
of labor unions, especially the Knights of
Labor. The Irish technique of the boycott
gave the Knights and other unions a powerful
new tool in their struggle to match the economic,
political and legal powe
r of employers.
\par Other immigrants brought radical intellectual
and political traditions to America. German
and Eastern European immigrants played large
roles in the organization of Chicago's
socialist and anarchist movements. When these
movements emerged in the spotlight caused
by the Great Strike of 1877 and, especially,
the Haymarket Riot of 1886, many middle-class,
native-born whites quickly associated radicalism
and labor violence with i
mmigrants.
\par While some reform groups worked to inculcate
immigrants with Yankee virtues of thrift and
self-control, Jane Addams' Hull House developed
in part to help immigrants to organize t
hemselves. Addams, the daughter of a wealthy
Illinois businessman, took up her work in
part to learn from immigrants who represented
other societies and cultures. By 1892 Illinois
had elected its first foreign-born governor,
John Peter Altgeld, and immigr
a
nt political leaders worked to find roles
in Chicago's city government. Nevertheless,
many immigrants and their children continued
to face discrimination and limited opportunities,
and often relied upon their own ethnic communities
for social life and bus
iness activities.
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