To install click the Add extension button. That's it.
The source code for the WIKI 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the Mozilla Foundation, Google, and Apple. You could also do it yourself at any point in time.
How to transfigure the Wikipedia
Would you like Wikipedia to always look as professional and up-to-date? We have created a browser extension. It will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the WIKI 2 technology.
Try it — you can delete it anytime.
Install in 5 seconds
Yep, but later
4,5
Kelly Slayton
Congratulations on this excellent venture… what a great idea!
Alexander Grigorievskiy
I use WIKI 2 every day and almost forgot how the original Wikipedia looks like.
While Proto-Sino-Tibetan is commonly considered to have two direct descendants, Proto-Sinitic and Proto-Tibeto-Burman,[2] in recent years several scholars have argued that this was not well-substantiated,[3] and have taken to calling the group "Trans-Himalayan".[4] In this case, Proto-Tibeto-Burman may be considered as equivalent to Proto-Sino-Tibetan if Sinitic is indeed not the first branch to split from Proto-Sino-Tibetan.[5]
YouTube Encyclopedic
1/5
Views:
770
1 902
3 600
32 931
93 384
Evolution of the Chinese language: Pronouncing texts with Proto-Sino-Tibetan (Yangshao era)
History of the Chinese Language - Part 1 - Proto-Sino-Tibetan
Meeting the Proto-Sino-Tibetans
History of the Tibeto-Burman Languages
The History of the Sinitic (Chinese) Languages
Transcription
Features
Reconstructed features include prefixes such as the causative s-, the intransitive m-, the miscellaneous b-, d-, g-, and r-, suffixes -s, -t, and -n, and a set of conditioning factors that resulted in the development of tone in most languages of the family.[6] The existence of such elaborate system of inflectional changes in Proto-Sino-Tibetan makes the language distinctive from some of its modern descendants, such as the Sinitic languages, which have mostly or completely become analytic.
Proto-Sino-Tibetan, like Old Chinese, also included numerous consonant clusters, and was not a tonal language.
Phonology
Benedict (1972)
The table below shows consonant phonemes reconstructed by Benedict.[1][page needed]
Plosive
Fricative
Sonorant
Voiceless
Voiced
Voiceless
Voiced
Nasal
Other
Labial
p
b
m
w
Dental
t
d
s
z
n
r
Palatal
c
ʒ
y
Lateral
l
Velar
k
g
h
ŋ
Peiros & Starostin (1996)
The reconstruction by Peiros & Starostin suggests a much more complex consonant inventory.[7] The phonemes in brackets are reconstructions that are considered dubious.
Plosive/Affricate
Fricative
Sonorant
Unaspirated
Aspirated
Voiceless
Voiced
Voiceless
Voiced
Voiceless
Voiced
Voiceless
Voiced
Labial
p
b
pʰ
(bʰ)
m
w
Dental
t
d
tʰ
(dʰ)
n
r
Alveolar
c
ʒ
cʰ
(ʒʰ)
s
Palatal
ć
ʒ́
ćʰ
ʒ́ʰ
ś
ń
y
Lateral
(ƛ)
l
Velar
k
g
kʰ
(gʰ)
x
ɣ
ŋ
Uvular
(q)
(ɢ)
(qʰ)
(ɢʰ)
(χ)
Laryngeal
ʔ
Hill (2019)
The following tables show the reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan phonemes by Nathan Hill (2019).[8]
The consonants /ptkqʔmnŋlrj/ can take coda position, as well as the cluster /rl/. While Hill does not reconstruct /j/ as an initial consonant due to Baxter and Sagart's Old Chinese reconstruction lacking such a phoneme, he mentions that Jacques and Schuessler suggest a /j/ initial for some Old Chinese words due to potential Tibetan or Rgyalrongic cognates.[10]
Hill also claims that his reconstruction is incomplete, as it does not account for Tibetic palatalization, proto-Burmish preglottalization, Sinitic aspirates, and the Sinitic type A and B distinction of syllables.
Sound changes
Final consonant changes
In Gong Huangcheng's reconstruction of the Proto-Sino-Tibetan language, the finals *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, and *-ŋ in Proto-Sino-Tibetan remained in Proto-Sinitic and Proto-Tibeto-Burman. However, in Old Chinese, the finals *-k and *-ŋ that came after the close vowel *-i- underwent an irregular change of *-k>*-t and *-ŋ >*-n. In Proto-Tibeto-Burman, *-kw and *-ŋw underwent a sound change to become *-k and *-ŋ respectively, while in Old Chinese those finals remained until Middle Chinese, where the finals underwent the same sound change.[11]
Furthermore, in Proto-Tibeto-Burman, the finals *-g, *-gw, and *-d underwent the following changes:
*-d>*-y
*-gw>*-w
*-g>*-w when it follows the vowel *-u-
*-g>*-∅ when it follows the vowel *a and *-a-.
Example of sound changes
Voiceless plosive finals
Proto-Sino-Tibetan
Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei)
Proto-Tibeto-Burman
*-p
*-jəp
汲 *kjəp
*ka·p
泣 *khrjəp
*krap
立 *(g-)rjəp
*g-ryap
*-jap
接 *tsjap
*tsyap
*-jup
入 *njəp
*nup~ *nip
*-t
*-iat
八 *priat
*b-r-gyat
殺 *r-siat
*g-sat
*-uat
脫 *hluat
*g-lwat
*-jit
一 *·jit
*it
*-k
*-ək
翼 *lək
*lak
*-jək
織 *tjək
*tak
息 *sjək
*sak
食 *N-ljək
*(m-)lyak
飼 *s-ljəks
*(s-)lyak
*-ik
節 *tsik>*tsit
*tsik
縊 *·iks, *·jiks
*ik
*-jik
蝨 *srjik>*srjit
*s-rik
*-juk
曲 *khjuk
*guk~kuk
*-kw
*-əkw
毒 *dəkw
*duk~*tuk
*-jəkw
腹 *phjəkw, *bjəkw
*pu·k~*buk
六 *drjəkw
*d-ruk
Nasal finals
Proto-Sino-Tibetan
Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei)
Proto-Tibeto-Burman
*-m
*-əm
含 *gəm
*gam
頷 *gəm
*gam
*-jəm
飲 *·jəmx
*am
尋 *ljəm
*la[·]m
*-jim
坅 *khjamx “pit”
*kim
*-um
三 *səm
*g-sum
*-jum
尋 *ljəm
*lum
*-n
*-an
乾 *kan
*kan
*-jin
辛 *sjin
*m-sin
*-ng
*-jəng
夢 *mjəngs
*mang
蒸 *tjəng
*tang
*-jang
紡 *phjangx
*pang
涼 *grjang
*grang
迎 *ngrjang
*ngang
*-ing
盈 *bling
*bling~pling
*-jing
年 *ning>*nin
*ning
名 *mjing
*r-ming
甥 *srjing
*sring
薪 *sjing>*sjin
*sing
仁 *njing>*njin
*s-ning
*-ngw
*-jəngw
躬 *kjəngw
*gung
Voiced plosive finals
Proto-Sino-Tibetan
Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei)
Proto-Tibeto-Burman
*-b
*-əb
柔 *njəb>*njəgw
*nəw
*-d
*-əd
𤈦 *smjədx
*məy
*-ad
簸 *padx/s
*pwa·y
太 *tads
*tay
蜾 *kwadx
*kwa·y
我 *ngadx
*ngay
移 *lad
*lay
*-id
四 *sjids
*b-liy
*-jid
妣 *pjidx
*piy
畀 *sbjids
*biy
几 *krjidx
*kriy
屎 *skhljidx
*kliy
死 *sjidx
*siy
*-g
*-əg
母 *məgx
*ma
*-jəg
負 *bjəgx
*ba, *bak
子 *tsjəgx
*tsa
慈 *dzjəg
*m-dza
孳 *dzjəgs
*za
耳 *njəgx
*r-na~*g-na
牛 *ngwjəg
*ngwa
*-ag
補 *pagx
*pa
苦 *khagx
*ka
吾 *ngag
*nga
五 *ngagx
*l-nga~*b-nga
狐 *gwag
*gwa
*-jag
斧 *pjagx
*r-pwa
夫 *pjag
*(p)wa
父 *bjagx
*pa
無 *mjag
*ma
魚 *ngjag
*ngya
咀 *dzjag
*dza
汝 *njagx
*na
*-ug
口 *khugx
*kuw
寇 *khugs
*r-kuw
*-jug
霧 *m(r)jugs
*(r-)muw
軀 *khjug
*(s-)kuw
乳 *njugx
*nuw
*-gw
*-əgw
寶 *pəgwx
*puw
抱 *bəgwx
*buw
*-jəgw
鳩 *kjəgw
*kuw
九 *kjəgwx
*d-kuw
舅 *gjəgwx
*kuw
*-agw
豪 *gagw
*m/s-gaw
號 *gagws
*gaw
熬 *ngagw
*r-ngaw
臊 *sagw
*sa·w
*-jagw
飄/漂 *phjagw
*pyaw
Liquid finals
Proto-Sino-Tibetan
Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei)
Proto-Tibeto-Burman
*-l
*-al
肝 *kan
*m-kal
*-ul
本 *pən
*bul~*pul
*-jul
銀 *ngjən
*(d)-ngul
閩 *mjən
*s-brul
*-jal
疲 *brjal
*bal
*-il
洒 *silx
*(m-)s(y)il
*-r
*-ar
播 *s-bars
*bwar
皤 *bar, *par
*pwa:r
*-jar
販 *pjans
*par
鮮 *sjan
*sar
*-uar
酸 *suan
*swa·r
*-jur
飛 *pjər
*pur~*pir
Vocabulary
Words which do not have reliable Sinitic parallels are accompanied by a (TB).
^Orlandi, Georg (2021). "Once again on the history and validity of the Sino-Tibetan bifurcate model". Journal of Language Relationship. 19 (4): 263–292.
^van Driem, George (2007). "The diversity of the Tibeto-Burman language family and the linguistic ancestry of Chinese". Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics. 1 (2): 211–270. doi:10.1163/2405478X-90000023.
^Peiros, Ilia; Starostin, S.A. (1996). A comparative vocabulary of five Sino-Tibetan languages. Parkville, VIC: Univ. of Melbourne, Dept. of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics. ISBN9780732513504.
^Gong Huangcheng (龔煌城) (2003). 從原始漢藏語到上古漢語以及原始藏緬語的韻母演變 [Final changes from Proto-Sino-Tibetan to Old Chinese and Proto-Tibeto-Burman] (PDF). 古今通塞:漢語的歷史與發展. 第㆔屆國際漢學會議論文集語言組 (in Chinese). pp. 187–223. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2020-11-03. Retrieved 22 October 2023.