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Indian Ocean slave trade

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Indian Ocean slave trade, sometimes known as the East African slave trade and part of the Arab slave trade, was multi-directional slave trade and has changed over time. Captured in raids primarily south of the Sahara, predominately black Africans were traded as slaves to the Middle East, Indian Ocean islands (including Madagascar), Indian subcontinent, and Java. Beginning in the 16th century, they were traded to the Americas, including Caribbean colonies.[1][2]

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  • Int'l Commerce, Snorkeling Camels, and The Indian Ocean Trade: Crash Course World History #18
  • Untold INDIAN Ocean Trade History | Indian Maritime History
  • The Arab Slave Trade of East Africa Exposed
  • The Forgotten Arab Slave Trade of East Africa
  • Exposing Africa's Part In The Slave Trade

Transcription

Hi, I’m John Green, This is Crash Course World History, and today we’re going to be discussing trade here, in the Indian Ocean. How’d my handwriting get so good? Oh, my globe had a globe! We’re gonna do some new-school history where we talk about a system instead of talking about individuals or some boring boring dynasty— no, Stan, not that kind of Dynasty— yes, that kind of dynasty. So many world history classes still focus on People Who Wore Funny Hats, and how their antics shaped our lives, right? And while it’s interesting and fun to note that, like, King Charles VI of France believed that he was made out of glass, relentlessly focusing on the actions of the Funny Hatted who ruled us makes us forget that we also make history.Mr. Green, Mr. Green! Did Charles VI of France really believe that he was made out of glass? Yes, he did, but today we’re talking about Indian Ocean trade and it’s going to be interesting, I promise. So pay attention. ALSO, NO HATS! This is a classroom, not a Truman Capote beach party. [music intro] [music intro] [music intro] [music intro] [music intro] [music intro] So Indian Ocean trade was like the Silk Road, in that it was a network of trade routes that connected people who had stuff to people who wanted it and were willing to pay for it. And just as the Silk Road was not a single road, there were lots of Indian Ocean trade routes connecting various port cities around the Indian Ocean Basin, including Zanzibar and Mogadishu and Hormuz and Canton. By the way, before you criticize my pronunciation, please remember that mispronunciation is my thing and I’ve been doing it since episode one, and nobody ever notices that it’s a thing! Sorry, I lost it there... But Indian Ocean trade was bigger, richer, and featured more diverse players than the Silk Road, but it is much less famous probably because it does not have a snazzy name. What do you think, Stan? Like the “Neptunian Network”? No. “The Wet Web”? No, that’s definitely not it. “The Sexy Sea Lanes of South Asia”? No, that’s too hard for me to say with my lisp... “THE MONSOON MARKETPLACE”! Thanks, Danica. And now the tyranny of dates: By about 700 CE, there was a recognizable Monsoon Marketplace, but it really blew up between 1000 CE and 1200. It then declined a bit during the Pax Mongolica, when overland trade became cheap and safe, because--- wait for it--- The Mongols. But then the Indian Ocean trade surged again in the 14th and 15th centuries. So who was trading? Swahili coast cities, Islamic empires in the Middle East, India, China, Southeast Asia, and NOT EUROPE, which is probably one of the reasons that Monsoon Marketplace isn’t as famous as it should be. Let’s go to the Thought Bubble. So if you live in China, and you need some ivory to make the handle for a sword, you have to trade for it, because elephants only live in India and Africa. One of the reasons Indian Ocean trade took off is that there were a wide range of resources available and a wide range of import needs—from ivory to timber to books to grain. But the most important thing was the wind. The Indian Ocean is home to a set of very special winds called Monsoons. You generally hear about Monsoons in the context of rain in India, but rather than thinking of Monsoons as the rain itself, think of them as the wind that bring a rainy season. The great thing about seasons is that they come regularly—and so do the Monsoon winds. So if you were a sailor, you could count on the wind to bring you from Africa to India if you sailed between April and September, and one that would bring you back to Africa if you sailed between November and February. These winds were so predictable that early maritime travel guides often listed ideal times of departure down to the week and sometimes the day. Predictable winds make trade a lot less risky: Like, back in the day when the only power for ships were sails and oarsmen, your cargo might not arrive on time, or it might spoil, or you might die, all of which are bad for the health of global economic trade. But predictable winds meant lower risk, which meant cheaper trade, which meant more trade, which meant more people could have awesome sword handles. Thanks Thought Bubble. Okay, there are a few more facets of Indian Ocean trade worth mentioning. First, Indian Ocean trade incorporated many more people than participated in Silk Road trade. There were Jewish people and people from Africa to Malaysia and India and China, all sailing around and setting up trading communities where they would act as middle men, trying to sell stuff for more than they bought it for and trying to find new stuff to buy that they could sell later. But despite this diversity, for the most part, especially on the Western half of the Indian Ocean basin, the trade was dominated by Muslim merchants. Why? Largely because they had the money to build ships, although we will see that in the 15th century the Chinese state could have changed that balance completely. By the way, I need to point out that when I say that the trade was dominated by Muslim merchants, the emphasis should be on the merchants- not the Muslim or the dominated. As previously noted, we tend to think that states and governments and the funny-hatted people who rule them are the real movers and shakers in history, but that’s really not the case. In the Indian Ocean, the terms of trade were set by the merchants and by the demands of the market, not by the whims of political rulers. And the self-regulating nature of that trade was remarkable and pretty much unprecedented. I mean, the most amazing thing, except for a few pirates, all of this trade was peaceful. For the better part of seven hundred years these merchant ships were free to sail the seas without the need for protection from any state’s navy. This despite the fact that some pretty valuable crap was being traded. No, Bubble, I meant that colloquially. Alright, we need to do the open letter before Thought Bubble tries more puns. [scoots] Magic! For today’s Open Letter, to further discuss the relationship between merchants and nobles, we’re going to go inland to Kashmir where Kota Rani was the ruler until 1339. Mostly I just love this story... But first, let’s find out what’s in the Secret Compartment. Oh, it’s Blowouts. Stan, are you asking me to make a diarrhea joke? Because I’m above that. I will, however, give you a party blower solo: Dear Kota Rani, So, you had a pretty crazy life. When you were a kid you were kidnapped by a rival noble who disguised his army as a bunch of merchants. Than you were forced to marry your kidnapper who was the ruler of Kashmir, but, then he died. And then you became the ruler and you were really good at it and everything was going awesome and you were lining things up for your sons, but then some dude comes in and decides he’s going to marry you and forces you to do it by attacking you. And so what do you do? Immediately after your second wedding you commit suicide by slicing open your belly and offer your intestines to your horrible new husband as a wedding present. Oh, Stan. I don’t want to say it but I have to; That really took guts, Kota Rani! Sorry... And all this because your father welcomed an army into your house thinking they were merchants. Best wishes, John Green So, right. You wouldn’t let an army, or a rival noble, into your house, but everyone welcomes a merchant— and not just royalty. The great thing about seaborne trade is that you can trade bulk goods like cotton cloth, foodstuffs, and timber that’s all too heavy to strap onto a camel or mule. So for the first time we see the beginnings of goods being traded for a mass market, instead of just luxury goods, like silk for elites. Wood, for instance, can be used to build houses— but it’s not all that plentiful in the Arabian peninsula, however, when it becomes cheaper thanks to trade, suddenly more people can have better houses. Much of the timber that was shipped in the Monsoon Marketplace came from Africa, which is kind of emblematic. Africa produced a lot of the raw materials like animal hides and skin and ivory and gold. The Swahili city states imported finished goods such as silk and porcelain from China and cotton cloth from India. Spices and foodstuffs like rice were shipped from Southeast Asia and especially Sri Lanka where black pepper was a primary export good, and the Islamic world provided everything from coffee to books and weapons. But it wasn’t just products that made their way around the eastern hemisphere thanks to the Indian Ocean. Technology spread, too. Like the magnetic compass, which is kind of crucial if you like to know where you’re going, came from China. Muslim sailors popularized the astrolabe which made it easier to navigate by the stars. Boats using stern-post rudders were easier to steer, so that technology quickly spread throughout the Monsoon Marketplace. The Islamic world also produced the triangular lateen sail, which became super important because it allowed for ships to tack against the wind. This meant that a skilled crew could make their way through the ocean even if they didn’t have a strong tailwind. And just as with the silk road, ideas also traveled in the Monsoon Marketplace. For instance today, more Muslims live in Indonesia than in any other country. And yes, I know Indonesia has more than two islands. This is not to scale, obviously. Knowing what you’ve already learned about the growth of Islam and the spread of trade, it won’t surprise you to learn that Islam spread to Indonesia via the Monsoon Marketplace. After the 1200s, the region which had previously been heavily influenced by the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, like witness this temple, for instance: ...became increasingly Islamic as rulers and elites adopted the religion so they could have religious as well as economic ties to the people they were trading with. The conversion of most of a region to Islam, where it continues to flourish today is a pretty big deal. But Islam didn’t spread as effectively to the to Thailand, Laos, Cambodia or Vietnam because they weren’t centers of trade. How do you become a center for trade? Well, let’s zoom in here to the strait of Malacca. You can see how it could act as a choke point for trade. Any city that controlled that strait could stop the ships from going through it, or more likely tax them. And that’s exactly what happened, to such an extent that a powerful merchant state called Srivijaya rose up on Sumatra. And for a while, Srivijaya dominated trade in the region, because there were so many ships going through the Strait of Melaka going to and from China. But, as we’ll see in another episode that this trade abruptly declined in the 15th century. And with it, so did Srivijaya. This brings up a key point about Indian Ocean Trade: which is that it was indispensable to the creation of certain city states, like Srivijaya and the city states of the Swahili Coast. Without trade, those places wouldn’t have existed, let alone become wealthy and grand. Trade was a huge source of wealth for these cities because they could tax it; through import and export duties or port fees. But the fact that they are no longer powerful shows that trade can be a pretty weak foundation on which to built a polity, even a small one. There are many reasons for this: like high taxes can motivate traders to find other routes, for instance, but the main one is this: Reliance upon trade makes you especially vulnerable to the peaks and troughs in the global economy. The legacy of the merchant kingdom in Southeast Asia is still alive and well in Singapore, for instance. But one of the great lessons of cities that have declined or disappeared is that there’s usually a town nearby that’s eager to take your place and happy to offer lower taxes. It’s almost as if the merchants decide where the people with the funny hats go, rather than the other way around. Thanks for watching. I’ll see you next week. Crash Course is produced and directed by Stan Muller, our script supervisor is Danica Johnson. The show is written by my high school history teacher Raoul Meyer and myself. Our graphics team is ThoughtBubble, Last week’s Phrase of the Week was: "Unless you are the Mongols" If you want to suggest future phrases of the week or guess at this week’s you can do so in comments where you can also ask questions related to today's video that will be answered by our team of historians. Thanks for watching. and as we say in my hometown, don’t forget to remain resolute and resourceful in an atmosphere of extreme pessimism.. Oh! It's going to be a crash!!! Everything's fine...

History

Ancient Indian Ocean slave trade

Slave trading in the Indian Ocean goes back to 2500 BCE.[3] Ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Indians, and Persians all traded slaves on a small scale across the Indian Ocean (and sometimes the Red Sea).[4] Slave trading in the Red Sea around the time of Alexander the Great is described by Agatharchides.[4] Strabo's Geographica (completed after 23 CE) mentions Greeks from Egypt trading slaves at the port of Adulis and other ports in the Horn of Africa.[5] Pliny the Elder's Natural History (published in 77 CE) also describes Indian Ocean slave trading.[4]

In the 1st century CE, Periplus of the Erythraean Sea advised of slave trading opportunities in the region, particularly in the trading of "beautiful girls for concubinage."[4] According to this manual, slaves were exported from Omana (likely near modern-day Oman) and Kanê to the west coast of India.[4] The ancient Indian Ocean slave trade was enabled by building boats capable of carrying large numbers of human beings in the Persian Gulf using wood imported from India. These shipbuilding activities go back to Babylonian and Achaemenid times.[6]

Gujarati merchants evolved into the first explorers of the Indian Ocean as they traded slaves and African goods such as ivory and tortoise shells. The Gujaratis participated in the slavery business in Mombasa, Zanzibar and, to some extent, in the Southern African region.[7] Indonesians were also participants, and brought spices to trade in Africa. They would have returned via India and Sri Lanka with ivory, iron, skins, and slaves.[8]

The main slave routes in medieval Africa

After the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires entered into slave trading in the 6th century AD, it became a major enterprise.[4]

Cosmas Indicopleustes wrote in his Christian Topography (550 CE) that Somali port cities were exporting slaves captured in the interior to Byzantine Egypt via the Red Sea.[5] He also mentioned the import of eunuchs by the Byzantines from Mesopotamia and India.[5] After the 1st century, the export of black Africans from Tanzania, Mozambique and other Bantu groups became a "constant factor".[6] Under the Sasanians, Indian Ocean trade supported not only the transport of slaves, but also of scholars and merchants.[4]

Muslim Indian Ocean slave trade

A sketch of stone town showing the old fort and palace from the year 1871 to the year 1875. Zanzibar Stone Town was a port in the Indian Ocean slave trade.
Arab-Swahili slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma River in Mozambique

The Muslim world expanded along trade routes, such as the silk route in the 8th century. As the power and size of the Muslim trading networks grew, merchants along the routes were motivated to convert to Islam, as this would grant them access to contacts, trade routes and favour regarding trading rules under Muslim governance. By the 11th century, Kilwa, on the coast of modern-day Tanzania, had become a fully-fledged affluent center of a Muslim-governed trade in slaves and gold.[9]

Exports of slaves to the Muslim world from the Indian Ocean began after Muslim Arab and Swahili traders won control of the Swahili Coast and sea routes during the 9th century (see Sultanate of Zanzibar). These traders captured Bantu peoples (Zanj) from the interior in the present-day lands of Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania and brought them to the coast.[10][11] There, the slaves gradually assimilated in the rural areas, particularly on the Unguja and Pemba islands.[12] Muslim merchants traded an estimated 1000 African slaves annually between 800 and 1700, a number that grew to c. 4000 during the 18th century, and 3700 during the period 1800–1870.[citation needed]

William Gervase Clarence-Smith writes that estimating the number of slaves traded has been controversial in the academic world, especially when it comes to the slave trade in the areas of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea.[13]: 1  When estimating the number of people enslaved from East Africa, author N'Diaye and French historian Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau[14][15] estimate 8 million as the total number of people transported from the 7th century until 1920, amounting to an average of 5,700 people per year. Many of these slaves were transported by the Indian Ocean and Red Sea via Zanzibar.[16]

This compares with their estimate of 9 million people enslaved and transported via the Sahara. The captives were sold throughout the Middle East and East Africa. This trade accelerated as higher capacity ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on plantations in the region. Eventually, tens of thousands of captives were being taken every year.[12][17][18]

Slave labor in East Africa was drawn from the Zanj, Bantu peoples that lived along the East African coast.[11][19] The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Muslim traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, there were revolts of Zanj slave soldiers in Iraq.[20]

A 7th-century Chinese text mentions ambassadors from Java presenting the Chinese emperor with two Seng Chi (Zanj) slaves as gifts in 614. 8th and 9th century chronicles mention Seng Chi slaves reaching China from the Hindu kingdom of Sri Vijaya in Java.[20] The 12th-century Arab geographer al-Idrisi recorded that the ruler of the Persian island of Kish "raids the Zanj country with his ships and takes many captives."[21] According to the 14th-century Berber explorer Ibn Battuta, the sultans of the Kilwa Sultanate would frequently raid the areas around what is today Tanzania for slaves.[22]

The Zanj Rebellion, a series of uprisings that took place between 869 and 883 AD near the city of Basra (also known as Basara), situated in present-day Iraq, is believed to have involved enslaved Zanj who had originally been captured from the African Great Lakes region and areas further south in East Africa.[23] The rebellion grew to involve more than 500,000 slaves and free men who had been imported from across the Muslim empire and claimed "tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq".[24]

The Zanj who were taken as slaves to the Middle East were often used in strenuous agricultural work.[25] As the plantation economy boomed and the Arabs became richer, they began to consider agriculture and other manual labor work as demeaning. The resulting labor shortage resulted in an increased slave market.

It is certain that large numbers of slaves were exported from eastern Africa; the best evidence for this is the magnitude of the Zanj revolt in Iraq in the 9th century, though not all of the slaves involved were Zanj. There is little evidence of what part of eastern Africa the Zanj came from, for the name is here evidently used in its general sense, rather than to designate the particular stretch of the coast, from about 3°N. to 5°S., to which the name was also applied.[26]

The Zanj were needed to cultivate:

the Tigris-Euphrates delta, which had become abandoned marshland as a result of peasant migration and repeated flooding, [and] [sic] could be reclaimed through intensive labor. Wealthy proprietors "had received extensive grants of tidal land on the condition that they would make it arable." Sugar cane was prominent among the crops of their plantations, particularly in Khūzestān Province. Zanj also worked the salt mines of Mesopotamia, especially around Basra.[27]

Their jobs were to clear away the nitrous topsoil that made the land arable. The working conditions were considered to be extremely harsh and miserable. Many other people were imported as slaves into the region, besides Zanj.[28]

A Zanj slave gang in Zanzibar (1889)

Historian M. A. Shaban has argued that the rebellion was not a slave revolt, but a revolt of blacks (zanj). In his opinion, although a few runaway slaves did join the revolt, the majority of the participants were Arabs and free Zanj. He believes that if the revolt had been led by slaves, they would have lacked the necessary resources to combat the Abbasid government for as long as they did.[29]

In Somalia, the Bantu minorities are descended from Bantu groups who had settled in Southeast Africa after the initial expansion from Nigeria/Cameroon. To meet the demand for menial labor, Bantus from southeastern Africa captured by Somali slave traders were sold in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in Somalia and other areas in Northeast Africa and Asia.[30] People captured locally during wars and raids, mostly of Oromo and Nilotic origin, were also sometimes enslaved by Somalis.[31][32][33] However, the perception, capture, treatment and duties of these two groups of enslaved peoples differed markedly.[33][34]

From 1800 to 1890, between 25,000 and 50,000 Bantu slaves are thought to have been sold from the slave market of Zanzibar to the Somali coast.[35] Most of the slaves were from the Majindo, Makua, Nyasa, Yao, Zalama, Zaramo and Zigua ethnic groups of Tanzania, Mozambique and Malawi. Collectively, these Bantu groups are known as Mushunguli, which is a term taken from Mzigula, the Zigua tribe's word for "people" (the word holds multiple implied meanings including "worker", "foreigner", and "slave").[36]

14th-century traveler Ibn Battuta met a Syrian Arab girl from Damascus who was held as a slave of a black African governor in Mali. Ibn Battuta engaged in conversation with her in Arabic.[37][38][39][40][41] The black man was a scholar of Islam named Farba Sulayman. He was openly violating the rule in Islam against enslaving Arabs.[42][43]

Syrian girls were trafficked from Syria to Saudi Arabia until shortly before World War II. They were married to Arab men in order to legally bring them across the border but then divorced and given to other men. Syrians Dr. Midhat and Shaikh Yusuf were accused of engaging in this traffic of Syrian girls to supply them to Saudis.[44][45]

The Gulf of Bengal and Malabar in India were sources of eunuchs for the Safavid court of Iran, according to Jean Chardin.[46] Sir Thomas Herbert accompanied Robert Shirley in 1627-9 to Safavid Iran. He reported seeing Indian slaves sold to Iran, "above three hundred slaves whom the Persians bought in India: Persees, Ientews (gentiles [i.e. Hindus]) Bannaras [Bhandaris?], and others." brought to Bandar Abbas via ship from Surat in 1628.[47]

In the 1760s the Arab Syarif Abdurrahman Alkadrie enslaved other Muslims en masse while raiding coastal Borneo in violation of sharia, before he founded the Pontianak Sultanate.[48]

Raoul du Bisson was traveling down the Red Sea when he saw the chief black eunuch of the Sharif of Mecca being brought to Constantinople for trial for impregnating a Circassian concubine of the Sharif and having sex with his entire harem of Circassian and Georgian women. The chief black eunuch had not been castrated correctly so he was still able to impregnate. Bisson reported that the women were drowned as punishment.[49][50][a] Twelve Georgian women were shipped to the Sharif to replace the drowned concubines.[51]

Emily Ruete (Salama bint Said) was born to Sultan Said bin Sultan and Jilfidan, a Circassian slave concubine (some accounts note her as Georgian[52][53][54]) a victim of the Circassian slave trade. An Indian girl slave named Mariam (originally Fatima) ended up in Zanzibar after being sold by multiple men. She originally came from Bombay. There were also Georgian girl slaves in Zanzibar.[55] Men in Egypt and Hejaz were customers for Indian women trafficked via Aden and Goa.[56][57]

Since Britain banned the slave trade in its colonies, 19th-century British-ruled Aden no longer legally received slaves. Those slaves sent from Ethiopia to Arabia were shipped to Hejaz instead for sale.[58]

Eunuchs, female concubines, and male labourers were the chief roles of slaves sent from Ethiopia to Jidda and other parts of Hejaz.[59] The southwest and southern parts of Ethiopia supplied most of the girls being exported by Ethiopian slave traders to India and Arabia.[60] Female and male slaves from Ethiopia made up the main supply of slaves to India and the Middle East.[61] Ethiopian slaves, both females imported as concubines and men imported as eunuchs, were imported in 19th-century Iran.[62][63] Sudan, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zanzibar exported the majority of slaves traded to 19th-century Iran.[64] The principal sources of these slaves, all of whom passed through Matamma, Massawa and Tadjoura on the Red Sea, were the southwestern parts of Ethiopia, in the Oromo and Sidama country.[13][page needed]

Both non-Muslims and Muslims in Southeast Asia during the end of the 19th century bought Japanese girls as slaves; they were imported by sea to the region.[65]

The Japanese women were sold as concubines to both Muslim Malay men and non-Muslim Chinese and British men of the British-ruled Straits Settlements of British Malaya. They had often been trafficked from Japan to Hong Kong and Port Darwin in Australia. In Hong Kong the Japanese consul Miyagawa Kyujiro said these Japanese women were taken by Malay and Chinese men who “lead them off to wild and savage lands where they suffered unimaginable hardship.” One Chinese man paid 40 British pounds for 2 Japanese women, and a Malay man paid 50 British pounds for a Japanese woman in Port Darwin, Australia after they were trafficked there in August 1888 by a Japanese pimp, Takada Tokijirō.[66][67][68][69][70][71]

The buying of Chinese girls in Singapore was forbidden for Muslims by a Batavia (Jakarta)-based Arab Muslim Mufti, Usman bin Yahya, in a fatwa. He ruled that in Islam it was illegal to buy free non-Muslims or marry non-Muslim slave girls during peace time from slave dealers, and non-Muslims could only be enslaved and purchased during holy war (jihad).[72]

Girls and women sold into prostitution from China to Australia, San Francisco, Singapore were ethnic Tanka people, and they served the men of the oversees Chinese community there.[73] The Tanka were regarded as a non-Han ethnicity during the Late Qing and Republican period of China.[74]

Ahmad Surkati and his Al-Irshad Al-Islamiya were said to be scandalized in 1913 because a Chinese non-Muslim man had a female concubine who was of Muslim Arab Hadhrami Sayyid origin in Solo, Dutch East Indies.[75][76]

In Jeddah, Kingdom of Hejaz on the Arabian peninsula, the Arab king Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz had in his palace 20 Javanese girls from Java (modern day Indonesia). They were used as his concubines.[77]

The Saudi conquest of Hejaz led to the escape of many slaves from the city; this was where most slaves in Arabia were located. Muslims often ignored Islamic prohibitions against enslaving other Muslims. Arab slave traders fooled both Javanese Muslims and Javanese Christians, tricking them into sending their children to slavery by lying and promising to escort the children to different places. A 4- and 3-year-old pair of Javanese Muslim boys were enslaved after they were purportedly to be taken to [[[Mecca]] to learn Islam. An Arab lied, claiming he would take a 10- and 8-year-old pair of Javanese Christian girls to family in Singapore, but enslaving them instead. Muslim men sometimes sold their own wives into slavery while on pilgrimage to Mecca, after pretending to be religious to trick the women into marrying them.[78]

The slave trade continued into the 20th-century. Slavery in Saudi Arabia, Yemen and the United Arab Emirates did not end until the 1960s and 1970s. In the 21st century, activists contend that many immigrants who travel to those countries for work are held in virtual slavery

Zanzibar and expansion of slave trade in the Swaihili coast

The East African slave trade flourished greatly from the second half of the nineteenth century, when Said bin Sultan, an Oman Sultan, made Zanzibar his capital and expanded international commercial activities and plantation economy in cloves and coconuts. During this period demands for slaves grew drastically. The slaves were needed for local use mainly to work in plantations in Zanzibar and for export. Sultan Seyyid (seyyid is an Arabic title for Lord) Said made deliberate efforts to "revive old Arab-caravan trade" with mainland Africa, which became the major source of slaves.[79]

Said bin Sultan took six major initiatives which facilitated growth and expansion of his commercial empire. He firstly introduced a new currency “Maria Theresa Dollar” to supplement the exiting “Spanish Crown”, which simplified commercial activities. Secondly, he introduced a harmonized 5% import duty for any merchandise entering into his empire. He abolished export duties. Thirdly, he took advantage of Zanzibar's and Pemba's fertile soil to establish plantations of coconut and cloves. Fourthly, he revitalised and extended the "old Arab-caravan trade" with mainland East Africa to acquire slaves and ivory. He signed “commercial treaties with western capitalist countries, such as the United States of America in 1833, with Great Britain in 1839, and France in 1844. Finally, he invited Asian merchants and experts who dealt with financial matters.[80][81]

It was not until 1873 that Sultan Seyyid Barghash of Zanzibar, under pressure from Great Britain, signed a treaty that made the slave trade in his territories illegal.[82] The British played a significant role in ending slavery in East Africa. They made treaties with African rulers to stop the slave trade at its source and offered protection against slave kingdoms like Ashanti. The Royal Navy was instrumental in capturing slave ships and freeing enslaved Africans. Between 1808 and 1860, around 1,600 slave ships were captured, and more than 150,000 enslaved Africans were freed. Britain also made suppressing the Atlantic slave trade a part of its foreign policy. [83]

European Indian Ocean slave trade

The slave trade was taking place in the eastern Indian Ocean well before the Dutch settled there around 1600. The volume of this trade is unknown.[84]

The European slave trade in the Indian Ocean began when Portugal established Estado da Índia in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, c. 200 slaves were exported annually from Mozambique; similar figures have been estimated for slaves brought from Asia to the Philippines during the Iberian Union (1580–1640).

According to Francisco De Sousa, a Jesuit who wrote about it in 1698, Japanese slave girls were still owned by India-based Portuguese (Lusitanian) families long after the 1636 edict by Tokguawa Japan had expelled Portuguese people.[85]

The establishment of the Dutch East India Company in the early 17th century resulted in a quick increase in volume of the slave trade in the region; there were perhaps up to 500,000 slaves in various Dutch colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indian Ocean. For example, some 4000 African slaves were used to build the Colombo fortress in Dutch Ceylon. Bali and neighbouring islands supplied regional networks with c. 100,000–150,000 slaves 1620–1830. Indian and Chinese slave traders supplied Dutch Indonesia with perhaps 250,000 slaves during the 17th and 18th centuries.[84]

The East India Company (EIC) was established during the same period; in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the Coromandel Coast to Dutch East Indies. The EIC mostly traded in African slaves but also some Asian slaves purchased from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. The French established colonies on the islands of Réunion and Mauritius in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the Mascarene Islands, a number which had reached 133,000 in 1807.

The British captured the islands in 1810, however. Because the British had prohibited the slave trade in 1807, a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to French planters on the islands; in all 336,000–388,000 slaves were exported to the Mascarane Islands from 1670 until 1848.[84]

In all, Europeans traders exported 567,900–733,200 slaves within the Indian Ocean between 1500 and 1850, and almost that same number were exported from the Indian Ocean to the Americas during the same period. The slave trade in the Indian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to c. 12,000,000 slaves exported across the Atlantic.[84][86] Some 200,000 slaves were sent in the 19th century to European plantations in the Western Indian Ocean.[13]: 10 

Geography and transportation

From the evidence of illustrated documents, and travellers' tales, people travelled on dhows or jalbas, Arab ships which were used as transport in the Red Sea.

To cross the Indian Ocean required better organisation and more resources than overland transport. Ships coming from Zanzibar made stops on Socotra or at Aden before heading to the Persian Gulf or to India. Slaves were sold as far away as India, or China: a colony of Arab merchants operated in Canton. Serge Bilé cites a 12th-century text that said that most well-to-do families in Canton, China had black slaves. Although Chinese slave traders bought slaves (Seng Chi i.e. the Zanj[20]) from Arab intermediaries and "stocked up" directly in coastal areas of present-day Somalia, the local Somalis were not among the enslaved.[87] (These locals were referred to as Baribah and Barbaroi (Berbers) by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively (see Periplus of the Erythraean Sea),[19][88][89] and were no strangers to capturing, owning and trading slaves themselves.[90]

Slaves from other parts of East Africa made up an important commodity being transported by dhows to Somalia. During the nineteenth century, the East African slave trade grew enormously due to demands by Arabs, Portuguese, and French. Slave traders and raiders moved throughout eastern and central Africa to meet this rising demand. The Bantus inhabiting Somalia are descended from Bantu groups that had settled in Southeast Africa after the initial expansion from Nigeria/Cameroon. Their peoples were later captured and sold by traders.[34] The Bantus are ethnically, physically, and culturally distinct from Somalis, and they have remained marginalized ever since their arrival in Somalia.[91][92]

Towns and ports involved

Gallery

See also

References

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Bibliography

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