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1920s in jazz

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jazz by decade
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Ray Miller Orchestra
King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra, Houston, Texas, 1921

The period from the end of the First World War until the start of the Depression in 1929 is known as the "Jazz Age". Jazz had become popular music in America, although older generations considered the music immoral and threatening to cultural values.[1] Dances such as the Charleston and the Black Bottom were very popular during the period, and jazz bands typically consisted of seven to twelve musicians. Important orchestras in New York were led by Fletcher Henderson, Paul Whiteman and Duke Ellington. Many New Orleans jazzmen had moved to Chicago during the late 1910s in search of employment; among others, the New Orleans Rhythm Kings, King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band and Jelly Roll Morton recorded in the city. However, Chicago's importance as a center of jazz music started to diminish toward the end of the 1920s in favor of New York.[2]

In the early years of jazz, record companies were often eager to decide what songs were to be recorded by their artists. Popular numbers in the 1920s were pop hits such as "Sweet Georgia Brown", "Dinah" and "Bye Bye Blackbird". The first jazz artist to be given some liberty in choosing his material was Louis Armstrong, whose band helped popularize many of the early standards in the 1920s and 1930s.[3]

Some compositions written by jazz artists have endured as standards, including Fats Waller's "Honeysuckle Rose" and "Ain't Misbehavin'". The most recorded 1920s standard is Hoagy Carmichael and Mitchell Parish's "Stardust".[4] Several songs written by Broadway composers in the 1920s have become standards, such as George and Ira Gershwin's "The Man I Love" (1924), Irving Berlin's "Blue Skies" (1927) and Cole Porter's "What Is This Thing Called Love?" (1929). However, it was not until the 1930s that musicians became comfortable with the harmonic and melodic sophistication of Broadway tunes and started including them regularly in their repertoire.

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  • The Roaring 20's: Crash Course US History #32
  • 1920s HOT GERMAN JAZZ COMPILATION (1920ER WEIMAR ERA HOT JAZZ)
  • 1920s Jazz Age : Fashion & Photographs

Transcription

Episode 32: The Roaring 20s? Hi, I’m John Green, this is Crash Course U.S. History and today we’re going to learn about one the best eras ever, the 1920s. The 20s gave us Jazz, movies, radio, making out in cars, illegal liquor. And the 20s also gave us prosperity, although not for everybody and gangsters and a consumer culture based on credit and lots of prejudice against immigrants and eventually the worst economic crisis the U.S. has seen. Mr. Green, Mr. Green, but what about Gatsby? Yeah, Me from the Past, it’s true that Gatsby turned alright in the end, but what preyed on Gatsby, what foul dust trailed in the wake of his dreams did temporarily close out my interest in the aborted sorrows and short-winded elations of men. intro So there’s a stereotypical view of the 1920s as the “Roaring 20s,” a decade of exciting change and new cultural touchstones, as well as increased personal freedom and dancing. And it really was a time of increased wealth. For some people. The quote of the decade has to go to our famously taciturn president from Massachusetts, Calvin Coolidge, who said, “the chief business of the American people is business.” Jay-Z would later update this for the 21st century noting, “I'm not a businessman, I'm a business, man.” But anyway during the 1920s the government helped business grow like gangbusters, largely by not regulating it much at all. This is known as “laissez-faire” capitalism. Or “laissez-faire” capitalism if you’re good at speaking French. The Republican Party dominated politics in the 1920s, with all the presidents elected in the decade being staunch conservative Republicans. The federal government hewed to the policies favored by business lobbyists, including lower taxes on personal income and business profits, and efforts to weaken the power of unions. Presidents Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover stocked the boards of the Federal Reserve and the Federal Trade Commission with men who shared their pro-business views, shifting the country away from the economic regulation that had been favored by Progressives. And that was very good for the American economy. At least in the short run. The 1920s were also marked by quite a bit of government corruption, most of which can be pinned to the administration of Warren G. Harding. Now, Harding himself wasn’t terribly corrupt, but he picked terrible friends. They included attorney general Harry Daughtery, who accepted money to not prosecute criminals, and Interior Secretary Albert Fall, who took half a million dollars from private business in exchange for leases to government oil reserves at Teapot Dome. Fall later became the first cabinet member ever to be convicted of a felony. But on the other hand: Business, man! Productivity rose dramatically, largely because older industries adopted Henry Ford’s assembly line techniques, and newer industries like aviation, chemicals, and electronics grew up to provide Americans with new products and new jobs. During the 1920s annual production of cars tripled to 4.8 million and automobile companies were gradually consolidated into the big three that we know today: Ford, Chrysler, and Harley Davidson. What? General Motors. By 1929 half of all American families owned a car. And thus began the American love affair with the automobile, which is also where love affairs were often consummated. Which is why, in the 1920, cars came to be known as “skoodilypooping chariots.” What’s that? They were called “Brothels on Wheels”? And the economy also grew because American corporations were extending their reach overseas and American foreign investment was greater than that of any other country. The dollar replaced the pound as the most important currency for trade and by the end of the decade America was producing 85% of the world’s cars and 40% of its overall manufactured goods. Stan, can I get a Libertage? Libertage And companies churned out all kinds of labor saving devices like vacuum cleaners, toasters, refrigerators. And not having to spend all day washing your clothes or turning over your own toast like some kind of commoner meant that Americans had more time for leisure. And this was provided by radios, and baseball games, boxing matches, vacations, dance crazes. I mean before Gangnam Style, there was the the Lindy and the Charleston. But probably the most significant leisure product was movies. And I’m not just saying that because I’m staring into a camera. The American film industry moved out to Hollywood before World War I because land was cheap and plentiful, all that sunshine meant that you could shoot outside all year round. And it was close to everything: desert, mountains, ocean, plastic surgeons. And by 1925 the American film industry had eclipsed all of its competitors and become the greatest in the world, especially if you count by volume and not quality. And more and more people had money to go see those movies thanks to consumer debt. The widespread use of credit and layaway buying plans meant that it was acceptable to go into debt to maintain what came to be seen as the American “standard of living” and this was a huge change in attitude. These days we don’t even think of credit cards as debt really, but they are. And that was a relatively new idea. As was another feature of American life in the 20s that is still with us: celebrity. Opera singer Enrico Caruso has often been called the first modern celebrity but now he’s a lot less famous than Charlie Chaplin, or Rudolph Valentino, or Babe Ruth. But probably the biggest celebrity of the decade was Charles Lindbergh, whose claim to fame was flying across the Atlantic Ocean by himself without stopping. Although he did use an airplane, which makes it slightly less impressive. Now Lindbergh wasn’t a truly contemporary celebrity in the sense of being famous for being famous, but he was a business more than a businessman. High culture also flourished. This was the age of the “Lost Generation” of American writers, many of whom lived and worked in Europe, but America had its own version of Paris in New York. The decade of the 1920s saw continued migration of African American people from the south to cities in the North, and Harlem became the capital of Black America. And speaking of migration, let us now migrate to the chair for the Mystery Document. The rules here are simple. I guess the author of the Mystery Document. I’m either right or I get shocked with the shock pen. Alright let’s see what we’ve got here. If we must die, let it not be like hogs Hunted and penned in an inglorious spot, While round us bark the mad and hungry dogs, Making their mock at our accursed lot … Like men we’ll face the murderous, cowardly pack, Pressed to the wall, dying but fight back. Stan, thank you for the poetry. I appreciate that it’s not some obscure document from 18th century blah blah blah. It’s Claude McKay, Harlem Renaissance poet, the poem is called “If We Must Die.” It’s the only thing in the world I’m actually good at. Now I know this from the imagery alone, especially the line about mad and hungry dogs that would figuratively and literally make up the mobs at the lynchings, but the giveaway here is the ultimate sentiment that “we” will fight back. This was part of the spirit of the Harlem Renaissance, which rejected stereotypes and prejudice and sought to celebrate African American experience. Meanwhile, things were changing for women as well as they found ways to express autonomy. Flappers kept their hair and skirts short, smoked and drank illegally in public and availed themselves of birth control. And marketers encouraged them to buy products like cigarettes, christened “torches of freedom” by Edward Bernays. “Liberation” had its limits, though. Most women were still expected to marry, have children, and find their freedom at home through the use of washing machines. But the picture of prosperity is, as usual, more complicated than it at first appears. The fact that so many Americans were going into debt in order to pursue the American dream meant that if the economy faltered, and it did, there was going to be lots of trouble. Let’s go to the Thought Bubble. Prosperity in the 1920s wasn’t equally distributed through the population. Real industrial wages rose by a quarter between 1922 and 1929, but corporate profits rose at twice that rate. By 1929, 1% of the nation’s banks controlled 50% of the nation’s financial resources and the wealthiest 5% of Americans’ share of national income exceeded that of the bottom 60%. An estimated 40% of Americans lived in poverty. Now, many Americans celebrated big business and Wall Street was often seen as heroic, possibly because by 1920 about 1.5 million Americans owned some kind of stock. But big business also meant that smaller businesses disappeared. During the 1920s the number of manufacturing workers declined by 5%, the first time this class of workers had seen its numbers drop, but not the last. Now, some of these jobs were made up for by new jobs in retail, finance, and education, but as early as the 1920s New England was beginning to see unemployment and deindustrialization as textile companies moved their operations to the South, where labor was cheaper. And working class people still made up the majority of Americans and they often couldn’t afford these newfangled devices. Like in 1930, 75% of American homes didn’t have a washing machine, and only 40% of them had a radio. Farmers were even worse off. Many had prospered during World War I when the government subsidized farm prices in order to keep farms producing for the war effort. But, when the subsidies ended, production didn’t subside, largely due to mechanization and increased use of fertilizer. Farmers’ incomes dropped steadily and many saw banks foreclose upon their property. For the first time in American history, the number of farms declined during the 1920s. For farmers, the Great Depression began early. Thanks, Thought Bubble. So, organized labor also took a big hit. Although some companies engaged in welfare capitalism, providing pensions, medical insurance, and greater guarantees of workplace safety, many more continued to oppose unions and their efforts to improve working conditions. They employed stri kebreakers and continued to blacklist union organizers. And coupled with the market logic that led companies to move their businesses to the low-wage south, organized labor lost more than 2 million members in the 1920s. So, in general the federal government did little to nothing to help farmers or workers. The Supreme Court was the only segment of the government that kept any progressive ideas alive, as they began to craft a system of ideas that we call the jurisprudence of civil liberties. For instance, the courts stepped back from decisions like Schenk v. U.S. That was partly down to the newly created ACLU, which through lawsuits brought new meaning to freedom of speech and eventually the right to privacy. Now, the court still voted to uphold convictions of left wing critics of the government, but gradually began to embrace the idea that people had the right to express dissonant views in what Oliver Wendell Holmes called the “marketplace of ideas.” In Near v. Minnesota the Supreme Court struck down censorship of newspapers, and by 1927, Justice Brandeis was writing “that freedom to think as you will and to speak as you think are indispensable to the discovery and spread of political truth.” But despite increased free speech and torches of liberty and flappers and the Harlem Renaissance, the 1920s was in many ways a reactionary period in American history. For instance, the decade saw the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan in a new and improved form and by improved I mean much more terrible. Spurred on by the hyper-patriotism that was fostered during World War I, the Klan denounced immigrants, and Jews, and Catholics as less than 100% American. And by the mid 20s the Klan claimed more than 3 million members and was the largest private organization right here in my home state of Indiana. And with more immigrants coming from Southern and Eastern Europe – who were often Catholic and Jewish – White Protestants became more and more concerned about losing their dominant position in the social order. Spoiler alert – it turns out okay for you, white Protestants. The first immigration restriction bill was passed in 1921 limiting the number of immigrants from Europe to 357,000. In 1924 a new immigration law dropped that number to 150,000 and established quotas based on national origin. The numbers of immigrants allowed from southern and eastern Europe were drastically reduced and Asians (except for Filipinos) were totally forbidden. The quota for Filipinos was set at 50 per year although they were still allowed to emigrate to Hawaii because their labor was needed there. There were no restrictions however on immigration from the Western Hemisphere because California’s large-scale farms were dependent upon seasonal laborers from Mexico. These immigration restrictions were also influenced by fear of radical anarchists and pseudo-scientific ideas about race. Whites were seen as scientifically superior to people of color and as president Coolidge himself declared when he signed the 1924 immigration law, “America must be kept American.” Tell me, Calvin Coolidge, about how American you are. Are you Cherokee? Or Cree? Or Lakota? The 1920s also saw increased tension between science education in the United States and religious beliefs. The best known example is, of course, the trial of John Scopes in Tennessee in 1925. Scopes was tried for breaking the law against teaching evolution, which he had been encouraged to do by the ACLU as a test case for the freedom of speech. Scopes was prosecuted by William Jennings Bryan, whom you will remember as having recently resigned as Secretary of State and who had become a leader of the fundamentalist movement. And Scopes was defended by Clarence Darrow, that famous defense attorney who contemporary defense attorneys always point to to argue that defense attorneys aren’t all scum. Scopes and Darrow actually lost the trial but the case drew national attention and ultimately led to evolution being taught in more American schools. The Scopes trial is often seen as a victory for free thinking, and science, and modernism, and I suppose it was, but for me it’s more a symbol of the contradictions of the 1920s. This is the decade that gave us mass consumer culture and celebrity worship, which are important and very complicated legacies. And it also saw the birth of modern conceptions of civil liberties. It was a period when tolerance became an important value, but at the same time it saw a rise in lynchings. Immigrants were necessary for the economic boom of the 1920s, but at the same time their numbers were restricted as they were seen as a threat to “traditional American values.” And that raises a question that we’re still struggling with today: what are those values? I don’t mean that rhetorically. Let me know in comments. Thanks for watching. I’ll see you next week. Crash Course is produced and directed by Stan Muller. Our script supervisor is Meredith Danko. The associate producer is Danica Johnson. The show is written by my high school history teacher, Raoul Meyer, Rosianna Rojas, and myself. And our graphics team is Thought Café. I nailed that. Every week, there’s a new caption for the libertage. You can suggest your own in comments or ask questions about today’s video that will be answered by our team of historians. Thank you for watching Crash Course. If you enjoyed today’s video, make sure you’ve subscribed. And as we say in my hometown, don’t forget to be awesome. Roaring 20s -

1920

Main article: 1920 in jazz

In 1920, the jazz age was underway and was indirectly fueled by prohibition of alcohol.[5] In Chicago, the jazz scene was developing rapidly, aided by the immigration of over 40 prominent New Orleans jazzmen to the city, continuous throughout much of the 1920s, including The New Orleans Rhythm Kings who began playing at Friar's Inn.[5] However, in 1920, the cabaret business began in New York City and the growing number of speakeasies developing in the cellars of New York City provided many aspiring jazz musicians with new venues which gradually saw many musicians who had moved to Chicago ending up in on the east coast.[5] Classic Blues became very prominent from 1920 after Mamie Smith recorded Crazy Blues and grew in popularity along with jazz.[5]

In 1920, Paul Whiteman and his band recorded "Whispering" in New York City, in a subgenre known as symphonic jazz. Meanwhile, in New York City Adrian Rollini began playing bass saxophone with the California Ramblers and would later in the decade play with Bix Beiderbecke.[5] Duke Ellington had developed in a successful band leader and Louis Armstrong began to amaze audiences with New Orleans Jazz.[5]

1921

Main article: 1921 in jazz

Standards

1922

Main article: 1922 in jazz
Cover of a 1922 edition of F. Scott Fitzgerald's book Tales of the Jazz Age

In 1922, Chicago and New York City were becoming the most important centres for jazz, and jazz was becoming very profitable for jazz managers such as Paul Whiteman who by 1922 managed some 28 different jazz ensembles on the East Coast, earning more than $1 million in 1922.[7] Yet as a form of music it was still not appreciated by many critics, including Anne Faulkner, who passed off jazz as "a destructive dissonance," asking if the music "put the sin in syncopation"and Henry van Dyke who described jazz as "an unmitigated cacophony, a species of music invented by demons for the torture of imbeciles."[8]

Chicago in 1922 in particular was attracting bands such as Joe "King" Oliver's Creole Jazz Band at the Lincoln Gardens, joined by Louis Armstrong on 8 August 1922 and the Austin High Gang featuring Frank Teschemacher (clarinet), Jimmy McPartland (cornet), Richard McPartland (guitar and banjo) and Lawrence "Bud" Freeman (sax) who began playing at the Friar's Inn in Chicago.[7] Meanwhile, on the New York scene, Duke Ellington arrived in New York City with Sonny Greer and banjo player Elmer Snowden and met his idol James P. Johnson, Fats Waller who had begun to make a name for himself with his piano rolls and Willie "The Lion" Smith.[7]Coleman Hawkins, already well noted for his high level of profiency joined Mamie Smith's Jazz Hounds and were later hired in New York by Fletcher Henderson.[7]

Jazz began to emerge in the Soviet Union with the "First Eccentric Orchestra of the Russian Federated Socialist Republic – Valentin Parnakh's Jazz Band ".

1923

Main article: 1923 in jazz

Standard

1924

Main article: 1924 in jazz

In 1924, the improvised solo had become an integral part of most jazz performances[16] Jazz was becoming increasingly popular in New Orleans, Kansas City, Chicago and New York City and 1924 was something of a benchmark of jazz being seen as a serious musical form.[17][18] John Alden Carpenter made a statement insisting that jazz was now 'our contemporary popular music',[19] and Irving Berlin made a statement that jazz was the "rhythmic beat of our everyday lives," and the music's "swiftness is interpretive of our verve and speed". Leopold Stokowski, the conductor of the Philadelphia Orchestra in 1924, publicly embraced jazz as a musical art form and delivered praise to various jazz musicians.[20] In 1924, George Gershwin wrote Rhapsody in Blue, widely regarded as one of the finest compositions of the 20th century.[21]

Black jazz entrepreneur and producer Clarence Williams successfully recorded groups in the New Orleans area, among them Sidney Bechet and Louis Armstrong.[16] Williams, like Armstrong soon moved from New Orleans and opened a record store in Chicago. In Chicago, Earl Hines formed a group and incidentally inhabited the neighboring apartment to Armstrong while he was in Chicago.[22] Also in Chicago, trumpeter Tommy Ladnier begins playing in Joe Oliver's band. Meanwhile, Bechet soon moved to New England with Ellington during the summer of 1924, playing dances and later New York City.

In 1924, in jazz, ensembles in the Kansas City area began play a style with a four even beat ground beat as opposed to a New Orleans two beat ground beat behind a 4/4 melody.[22] Charlie Parker grew up in Kansas City listening to this style of jazz.

In 1924, Django Reinhardt became a guitarist and began playing the clubs of Paris.[22] Noted Classic Blues singer Bessie Smith began to achieve major fame.[22]

In October 1924, Louis Armstrong joined Fletcher Henderson's band in New York City upon his wife's insistence. They began performing at the Roseland Ballroom on 51st street and Broadway in Manhattan.[22] His new style of jazz playing greatly influenced the style of other New York musicians such as Coleman Hawkins and Duke Ellington.[23] Ellington and his Washingtonians performed at the Hollywood Club on 49th street and Broadway, while Bix Beiderbecke and the Wolverines, renamed Personality Kids performed at the Cinderella Ballroom on 41st street and Broadway. On 5 December 1924, a 17-year-old Jimmy McPartland replaced Beiderbecke in the Wolverines (Personality Kids) band and violinist Dave Harmon joins.[24]

1925

Main article: 1925 in jazz

Standards

1926

Main article: 1926 in jazz

Standards

Caucasian man in his thirties smiling and looking to the camera. He has a round face, full lips and large dark eyes, and his short dark hair is combed to the side. He is wearing a dark jacket, a white shirt and a black tie with white dots.
Cole Porter was one of the few Tin Pan Alley songwriters to write both lyrics and music for his songs.[42] His standards include "What Is This Thing Called Love?" (1929), "Love for Sale" (1930) and "Night and Day" (1932).

1927

Main article: 1927 in jazz

Standards

1928

Main article: 1928 in jazz

Standards

1929

Main article: 1929 in jazz

Standards

  • "Ain't Misbehavin'"[25][100][101] is a song from the musical revue Hot Chocolates, composed by Fats Waller and Harry Brooks with lyrics by Andy Razaf. Leo Reisman and His Orchestra was the first to take the song to the pop charts in 1929, followed by several artists including Bill Robinson, Gene Austin and Louis Armstrong. At the intermission of Hot Chocolates at the Hudson Theatre, Armstrong made his Broadway debut playing a trumpet solo on the song.[102] Waller's original instrumental recording was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1984.[37]
  • "Black and Blue"[103][104] is a song from the musical Hot Chocolates, composed by Fats Waller with lyrics by Harry Brooks and Andy Razaf. It was introduced by Louis Armstrong. Ethel Waters's 1930 version became a hit.[105] The song is also known as "What Did I Do to Be So Black and Blue".[105]
  • "Honeysuckle Rose"[25][46][106][107] is a song from the musical revue Load of Coal, composed by Fats Waller with lyrics by Andy Razaf. It was popularized by Fletcher Henderson and His Orchestra in 1933.[108] Waller's 1934 recording of the song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999.[37] Benny Goodman's Orchestra played a 16-minute jam session on the tune in their 1938 Carnegie Hall concert, featuring members from the bands of Count Basie and Duke Ellington. Charlie Parker used a part of the song's harmony in "Scrapple from the Apple" (1947).[108]
  • "Just You, Just Me"[109] is a song from the film Marianne, composed by Jesse Greer with lyrics by Raymond Klages. It was introduced by Marion Davies and Cliff Edwards. Lester Young recorded the tune several times. Thelonious Monk's 1948 composition "Evidence" was loosely based on it.[110]
  • "Liza (All the Clouds'll Roll Away)" is a show tune from the Broadway musical Show Girl, composed by George Gershwin with lyrics by Ira Gershwin and Gus Kahn. It was introduced on stage by Ruby Keeler and Dixie Dugan, accompanied by the Duke Ellington Orchestra.[111][112] Keeler's husband and popular singer Al Jolson appeared at the opening performance and sang a chorus of the song from the third row, creating a sensation and popularizing the song.[111]
  • "Mean to Me"[113][114] is a song composed by Fred E. Ahlert with lyrics by Roy Turk. It was first recorded by Ruth Etting. The song was a regular number in Billie Holiday's repertoire, and Holiday's 1937 recording with saxophonist Lester Young is considered the definitive vocal version. Young later made an instrumental recording with Nat King Cole and Buddy Rich.[115]
  • "More Than You Know"[46][116] is a Broadway show tune composed by Vincent Youmans with lyrics by Edward Eliscu and Billy Rose. Introduced by Mayo Methot in Great Day, the song became a hit even though the musical only lasted for 29 performances. Ruth Etting took it to number nine in 1930, and sexophonist Benny Carter played an acclaimed trumpet solo on his 1939 recording, despite the trumpet not being his main instrument.[117]
  • "Rockin' Chair"[118][119][120] is a song by Hoagy Carmichael. It was first recorded by Louis Armstrong in a duet with the composer.[121] Carmichael has said that he wrote the song as a kind of sequel to his 1926 "Washboard Blues", which had lyrics by Fred Callahan.[122] The song was made famous by Mildred Bailey, who used it as her theme song.[123] Bailey's first hit recording was made in 1937.[124]
  • "Stardust"[46][125][126] is a song composed by Hoagy Carmichael with lyrics by Mitchell Parish. Originally recorded by Carmichael as a mid-tempo jazz instrumental, the 1930 romantic ballad rendition by Isham Jones and His Orchestra became a top-selling hit. Louis Armstrong recorded an influential ballad rendition in 1931. The song is arguably the most recorded popular song, and one of the top jazz standards. Billboard magazine conducted a poll of leading disk jockeys in 1955 on the "popular song record of all time"; four different renditions of "Stardust" made it to the list, including Glenn Miller's (1941) at third place and Artie Shaw's (1940) at number one.[127] The title was spelled "Star Dust" in the 1929 publication, and both spellings are used.
  • "What Is This Thing Called Love?"[25] is a song written by Cole Porter for the musical revue Wake Up and Dream. It was introduced by Elsie Carlisle in London. Ben Bernie's and Fred Rich's recordings made the charts in 1930. One of the best-known instrumental versions was recorded by Clifford Brown and Max Roach with Sonny Rollins in 1956. The song's chord progression has inspired several later compositions, including Tadd Dameron's bebop standard "Hot House".[128]

References

  1. ^ Shaw Faulkner, Anne (20 June 2010). "Does Jazz Put the 'Sin' in Syncopation?". Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 6 March 2019.
  2. ^ Tyle, Chris. "Jazz History: The Standards (1920s)". JazzStandards.com. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
  3. ^ Tyle, Chris. "Jazz History". JazzStandards.com. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
  4. ^ "Songs – Top 50". JazzStandards.com. Retrieved 15 August 2009.
  5. ^ a b c d e f "History of Jazz Time Line: 1920". All About Jazz. Archived from the original on 17 November 2010. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  6. ^ a b c "Sheik of Araby". JazzStandards.com. Archived from the original on 6 January 2009. Retrieved 20 February 2009.
  7. ^ a b c d "History of Jazz Time Line: 1922". All About Jazz. Archived from the original on 15 April 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  8. ^ Clark, Andrew (2001). Riffs & choruses: a new jazz anthology. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 16. ISBN 0-8264-4756-2. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  9. ^ "Charleston". JazzStandards.com. Archived from the original on 23 January 2009. Retrieved 20 February 2009.
  10. ^ a b Jasen 2003, pp. 73–74
  11. ^ Phillips 2002, p. 86
  12. ^ a b Studwell 1994, p. 117
  13. ^ "Jazz Standards Songs and Instrumentals (Tin Roof Blues)". JazzStandards.com. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
  14. ^ a b Charters 2008, pp. 198–199
  15. ^ Kernfeld 1995, p. 7
  16. ^ a b Cook, Nicholas; Pople, Anthony (2004). The Cambridge history of twentieth-century music. Cambridge University Press. p. 131. ISBN 0-521-66256-7. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  17. ^ Ewen, David (1972). Men of popular music. Ayer Publishing. p. 114. ISBN 0-8369-7263-5. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  18. ^ Scheurer, Timothy E. (1989). American Popular Music: The nineteenth century and Tin Pan Alley. Popular Press. p. 147. ISBN 0-87972-466-8.
  19. ^ Cooke, Mervyn; Horn, David (2003). The Cambridge companion to jazz. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge University Press. p. 111. ISBN 0-521-66388-1. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  20. ^ Conyers, James L. (2001). African American jazz and rap: social and philosophical examinations of Black expressive behavior. McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-0828-6.
  21. ^ Studwell, William Emmett (1994). The popular song reader: a sampler of well-known twentieth century-songs. Routledge. p. 34. ISBN 1-56024-369-4. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  22. ^ a b c d e "History of Jazz Time Line: 1924". All About Jazz. Archived from the original on 15 April 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  23. ^ Ward, Geoffrey C., "Jazz: a history of America's music." Knopf, 2000. Page 112, 115. ISBN 0-679-44551-X
  24. ^ Max Harrison; Charles Fox; Eric Thacker (2000). The Essential Jazz Records: Ragtime to swing. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 133. ISBN 0-7201-1708-9. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  25. ^ a b c d e f g h Listed in The Real Jazz Book
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Bibliography

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